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1.
The ecological and evolutionary forces that shape interactions between marine sponges and their symbiotic microbiota remain poorly understood. Considerable work has been done to characterize the sponge microbiome, and this research has shown that there are two distinct types of sponges: those with high microbial abundances (HMA) and those with low microbial abundances (LMA). There is no clear evolutionary driver for this distinction, and we have only a limited understanding of how HMA or LMA status affects host phenotypes (e.g. feeding behavior, capacity for nutrient cycling). We had two primary goals with the present study. First, we used a variety of microscopic techniques to compare aspects of host biology (e.g. choanocyte chamber morphology and density) in the context of symbiont status. Secondly, we used molecular approaches to uncover components of ecological structure of bacterial communities in HMA versus LMA sponges (e.g. species richness, evenness). We found that choanocyte chamber density is greater in LMA sponges than in HMA sponges. We also found distinct patterns of organization for bacterial communities in HMA and LMA sponges, although environmental factors, to a lesser degree, also influence community structure in the Floridian sponges we examined. These results suggest that the large bacterial communities found in HMA sponges may allow the host to decrease their heterotrophy versus that of LMA sponges with minimal bacterial communities.  相似文献   

2.
Several long‐term studies have monitored populations of algal symbionts, Symbiodinium sp., in coral hosts over different temporal and spatial scales, and among multiple host species. The extension of these studies to include environmental pools of algal symbionts from sources such as the water column, sediments, free‐floating mucus mats and those settling on biofilms has only been studied by a few, yet has the potential to enhance our understanding of the dynamics and controls on symbiont populations. Adaptive changes in the coral symbiont complement rely either on the uptake of new strains from the environment or population expansion of rarer strains in the existing symbiont population. The relative scope for these alternative pathways of uptake is unknown. This study therefore examined spatial changes in Symbiodinium clades within the water column at two different time periods and compared these with other environmental pools (biofilms, sediments, and mucus mats) and those within the dominant reef‐building species at the study site, Acropora muricata. A diversity of algal symbiont clades were detected in environmental pools, with specific clades associated with different habitats. At an island scale, there was significant variation in clade composition between sites separated by 0.5–7 km, a result which was repeated for both sample periods encompassing different seasons (March 2009 and August 2010). Although no single environmental pool contained a Symbiodinium complement comparable to that of the host coral species investigated, the dominant coral Symbiodinium were available in combinations of the environmental pools, indicating that the coral has the potential to obtain its symbionts from a variety of environmental sources.  相似文献   

3.
Hydrozoa (Cnidaria) symbiotic with Porifera: a review   总被引：1，自引：1，他引：1  
Many hydroids are symbiotic with other organisms. Sponges, because of their complex canal system and their filter‐feeding activity inducing a continuous water flow, are used by numerous species as either exclusive or facultative substrata. The associated hydroid fauna thriving on or inside sponges shows a wide range of relationships with their hosts. Hydroids may be simply epibiotic on sponges, their stolons running on the host surface. Alternatively, the stolons may grow inside the sponge body, the polyps emerging from the sponge surface, having also the possibility of retraction inside the sponge tissue. Finally, stolons and branches may develop deeply inside the sponge body, producing a skeletal network for sponge growth. This paper reviews the described relationships of hydrozoans symbiotic with sponges and reports new observations.  相似文献   

4.
Quantitative trends in sponge ecology research   总被引：2，自引：1，他引：1  
Abstract It is almost dogmatic that sponges are one of the most relevant groups in benthic marine communities, a statement generally based upon their diversity and abundance in natural communities. But beyond their conspicuousness, do we really know the role that sponges play in nature? Using a series of productivity indicators, this review evaluates the relevance of sponge research to the general scientific community, particularly the contribution of sponge ecology to the broader science of ecology. The relevance of sponge research ranked second out of eight taxonomic groups. Ecology accounted for most of the sponge research output but it ranked poorly compared to the relative importance of the ecological literature in the remaining taxonomic groups. Sponge ecology focused primarily on the species level of organization even though the relevance of these studies fell well below expected. This review suggests that the ecological relevance of sponges is insufficiently supported by ecological data and would benefit from better scientific support. Sponge ecology has the opportunity to contribute to the broader science of ecology in numerous topics where sponge research may be particularly relevant. Broader ecological contributions will help verify the ecological relevance that the great diversity and abundance of sponges suggest.  相似文献   

5.
Abstract. Two small sclcractinians, Lepfopsummiu pruvoti (solitary) and Hoplungiu dur-olrix (colonial, aggrcgatcd or not), which arc common pcrcnnial componcnts of Mcditcrrancan submarinc cavcs and dccp vcrtical walls, bcar many cpibionts on thc lowcr part of thcir corallitcs. Samplcs were collectcd ncar Marscillcs (7–58 in) undcr various cnvironmcntal conditions and coral densitics. Frequency of occurrencc of thc major cpizoan groups and of individual bryozoan spccics overgrowing the corallites varies according to habitat charactcristics and to acccssibility of the individual corallitcs for adjaccnt epizoans. Thc most frcqucnt colonizcrs arc: bryozoans (by vcgctative growth and larval settlcrnent), sponges (mainly by vcgctativc growth), and scrpulids. Among the 40 recorded bryozoan species (26 on Leptopsammia, 28 on Hoplangiu), 15 spccics are relatively frequent on each host. Comparisons of data from the corallites with thosc obtained from adjoining samples indicatc the preference for coral substratc of Pucflina radiata. This encrusting bryozoan is highly predominant on both Leptopsammia and Hoplangiu as well as on other scleractinian species. SEM observations show that overgrowth processcs are reversible and that corals may control the invading encruSters by embedding them in their sclerenchyme. The balance and benefits of this epizoan/host system are discussed.  相似文献   

6.
Reef-building corals harbor symbiotic dinoflagellates, Symbiodinium spp., which are currently divided into several clades. The responses of corals associated with different Symbiodinium clades to thermal stress are not well understood, especially at a gene expression level. Juveniles of the coral Acropora tenuis inoculated with different algal types (clade A or D) were exposed to thermal stress and the expression levels of four putative stress-responsive genes, including genes coding green and red fluorescent proteins, an oxidative stress-responsive protein, and an ascorbic acid transporter, were analyzed by quantitative real-time PCR. The expression levels of the four genes decreased at high temperatures if juveniles were associated with clade A symbionts but increased if the symbionts were in clade D. The intensity of green fluorescence increased with temperature in clade D symbionts harboring juveniles, but not in juveniles associated with clade A symbionts. The present results suggest that genotypes of endosymbiotic algae affect the thermal stress responses of the coral juveniles.  相似文献   

7.
Eastern Pacific reefs are mostly made up of interlocking coral branches of Pocillopora, which are easily broken by physical forces associated with heavy swells and winds. In this study we investigated the potential of these coral fragments to enable propagation of boring sponges. For this, we quantified the frequency of occurrence and diversity of boring sponges in fragments of corals recently trapped among the branches of live colonies, and later tested the hypothesis that these sponges colonize new branches of corals. Nearly 80% of the coral colonies investigated had coral fragments among their branches, and 69% of these coral fragments contained boring sponges (11 species), some of these sponges in reproduction (23% of them carried oocytes). To test whether sponges inhabiting coral fragments could colonize new branching corals we transplanted them to healthy branches, and to branches whose living tissue was mechanically eliminated to simulate damage produced by grazing and death after bleaching and other causes of coral tissue mortality. All the transplanted coral fragments cemented to each new colony by means of calcification, and of the three sponge species tested (Cliona vermifera, Cliona tropicalis and Thoosa mismalolli) only C. vermifera was able to colonize both new living branches (26.9%) and cleaned branches (65.5%). The apparent capability of C. vermifera to colonize by direct contact may be another key ability of this species to maintain high frequency of occurrence in Pacific coral reefs. However, although C. tropicalis and T. mismalolli were not able to colonize new coral substrata by direct contact, coral fragments have the potential to contribute to local persistence of these sponges and to their dispersal, both by asexual (fragments) and sexual means (transport of sexual products). The present findings may partly explain the current increase of excavating sponges on deteriorating reefs with a large availability of dead branching corals.  相似文献   

8.
Low-Tide Exposure of Sponges in a Caribbean Mangrove Community   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  
K. Rützler 《Marine Ecology》1995,16(2):165-179
Abstract. Sponges on subtidal red-mangrove prop roots may become exposed to air many times per year during very low tides. Full exposure is stressful and potentially fatal, particularly if occurring in full sun. Large root sponges show distinct species zonation between mean low water and -0.5 m. Haliclona implexiformis and Lissodendoryx isodictyalis are near the top while Scopalina ruetzleri are near the lower end of the range. Temporary experimental desiccation resulted in 100% recovery of all three species after they had been exposed to either sun or shade for up to 2 h. Scopalina is the least resistant and lost over 90% tissue within 3 days after the 4-h and 6-h experiments; the remaining cell mass succumbed to infestation by microbes. Haliclona and Lissodendoryx recovered from as much as 6 h in full sun but lost 85% and 80% of the original tissue volume, respectively. In Lissodendoryx , clusters of larvae developed in the regenerating fragments. Water loss tolerated by the three species is estimated as 66% of wet weight in Haliclona , 54% in Lissodendoryx and 38% in Scopalina . Salinity of interstitial seawater (pore water) extracted from exposed sponges rose from ambient 3.5% to 4.348% after 1 h, to 5.1–5.9% after 6 h. Most endobionts died or left their host during this last phase. Natural vertical zonation in these sponges reflects their resistance to tidal exposure.  相似文献   

9.
It has recently been realized that sponges take up much of the dissolved organic matter (DOM) available in the water of reefs. The energy derived from this DOM is suggested to be invested in renewing the sponge filter cells (choanocytes) every few hours, generating an outflow of detrital particulate organic matter (POM) that is rapidly ingested by other invertebrates. By this DOM‐to‐POM recycling, sponges are proposed to fuel the food web of oligotrophic marine communities, including reefs, caves and deep‐sea environments. In four species studied herein by electron microscopy, the POM found in the outgoing aquiferous canals had a complex composition, with large between‐species differences. It may include choanocytes (0–52%), and also mesohyl cells, such as archeocytes (9–20%) and spherulous, and granular cells with inclusions (27–90%). Exocytosed vesicles also occurred. Surprisingly, to end up into the outgoing canals, the internal mesohyl cells squeezed between the epithelial cells (endopinacocytes) of the canal wall. Mesohyl cells were also able to transfer their inclusions to the endopinacocytes, which in turn extruded their acquired vesicle loads into the canal lumen. The unanticipated abundant participation of mesohyl cells and endopinacocytes in the production of POM appears to be an ordinary process that occurs continuously in the sponges, mostly related to elimination of digestion leftovers and excretion by‐products. Therefore, POM is generated by sponges irrespective of whether the primary food source is particulate (evidence from this study) or DOM (previous literature). Altogether, these results indicate that the cellular mechanisms behind the relevant organic‐matter recycling carried out by sponges are more diverse than initially anticipated. The varying ratios of choanocytes/mesohyl cells in the POM across species suggest that different sponge species may impact differently the energetics of food webs of the respective oligotrophic habitats where they dominate.  相似文献   

10.
Understanding the ecology and evolution of the cnidarian-algal symbiosis is of major scientific interest as it is sensitive to temperature and strong light and may therefore be susceptible to climate change. The stability of this mutualism is often mediated by host color pigments that influence photosynthetic activity in symbiotic dinoflagellates either by providing the photosystem with irradiance of suitable wavelength or by protecting it from much too much and potentially damaging light. Like scleractinian corals, the upside-down jellyfish, Cassiopea andromeda, relies heavily on the nutrients provided by its symbionts of the dinoflagellate genus Symbiodinium. It occurs in several conspicuously different color morphs and is found in habitats with high levels of irradiation. We tested whether the color morphs of Cassiopea were correlated with the Symbiodinium distribution in the host and whether host color was associated with different clades of Symbiodinium. We found that the presence of color pigment did not correlate with the distribution of Symbiodinium in the host. Symbiodinium was found in both the colored tentacles of the jellyfish and the colorless feeding tentacles. At least six different color morphs co-occurred in the very shallow waters of the Red Sea, but they all hosted a single Symbiodinium clade (clade A1). Therefore, no correlation of host color morph and Symbiodinium clade could be found. Photoaccumulative or photoprotective functions of host pigments, as proposed for some scleractinian corals, thus seem unlikely in the colored tentacles (vesicles) of the upside-down jellyfish Cassiopea andromeda.  相似文献   

11.
Biological structures exert a major influence on species diversity at both local and regional scales on deep continental margins. Some organisms use other species as substrates for attachment, shelter, feeding or parasitism, but there may also be mutual benefits from the association. Here, we highlight the structural attributes and biotic effects of the habitats that corals, sea pens, sponges and xenophyophores offer other organisms. The environmental setting of the biological structures influences their species composition. The importance of benthic species as substrates seems to increase with depth as the complexity of the surrounding geological substrate and food supply decline. There are marked differences in the degree of mutualistic relationships between habitat-forming taxa. This is especially evident for scleractinian corals, which have high numbers of facultative associates (commensals) and few obligate associates (mutualists), and gorgonians, with their few commensals and many obligate associates. Size, flexibility and architectural complexity of the habitat-forming organism are positively related to species diversity for both sessile and mobile species. This is mainly evident for commensal species sharing a facultative relationship with their host. Habitat complexity is enhanced by the architecture of biological structures, as well as by biological interactions. Colony morphology has a great influence on feeding efficiency for suspension feeders. Suspension feeding, habitat-forming organisms modify the environment to optimize their food uptake. This environmental advantage is also passed on to associated filter-feeding species. These effects are poorly understood but represent key points for understanding ecosystems and biodiversity on continental margins. In this paper we explore the contributions of organisms and the biotic structures they create (rather than physical modifications) to habitat heterogeneity and diversity on the deep continental margins.  相似文献   

12.
Four similar sponges of different colors, all unknown to science, were collected in submarine caves of New Caledonia. We aimed at determining whether the four chromotypes represented different species or phenotypic variations of a unique new species. We used an integrative taxonomic approach combining morphologic, molecular and metabolomic analyses. The main traits that define these specimens are a skeleton made of monolophose, trilophose and tetralophose calthrops only, high chemical diversity and a high abundance and diversity of prokaryotic symbionts. The symbiotic community includes two unique prokaryote morphotypes, which are described for the first time in Homoscleromorpha, and appeared to be vertically transmitted. Although several features slightly differ among chromotypes, the most parsimonious conclusion was to propose a single new species Plakina kanaky sp. nov. Our phylogenetic analysis indicated the paraphyly of the Plakina genus, with P. kanaky sp. nov. belonging to a clade that includes Plakina jani and Plakina trilopha. The present work demonstrates that integrative taxonomy should be used in order to revise the entire Plakinidae family and especially the non‐monophyletic genus Plakina.  相似文献   

13.
东海陆架黑潮区鸟尾藻的分类及其生态分布特点   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  
对东海陆架黑潮区及邻近海域的鸟尾藻进行了分类与生态分布研究 ,共检出 5种鸟尾藻 :大鸟尾藻、斯氏鸟尾藻、美丽鸟尾藻、赛氏鸟尾藻和方鸟尾藻。扫描电镜观察结果表明 ,鸟尾藻的纵沟左边翅是由两块边翅相连接而成 ,即由右下体边翅与纵沟左边翅相连而成。鸟尾藻分布的生物边界与暖水到达的位置相吻合 ,对东海黑潮及其台湾暖水水系具有显著的指示作用。  相似文献   

14.
Precious corals represent peculiar substrata for several species of boring sponges that exploit their carbonatic scleraxis, strongly decreasing their commercial value. Here we describe a new species of the genus Alectona from Japan recorded in a colony of Paracorallium japonicum (Kishinouye, 1903). The spicular complement of the new species consists of diactinal spicules covered by mushroom-like tubercles, often modified into styloid forms, and fusiform amphiasters with two or sometimes four verticils, each generally made up of six short tubercled rays. A complete survey of the literature on boring sponges recorded in precious corals in the Mediterranean Sea and Pacific Ocean indicates that the species of the family Alectonidae are the most strictly associated to this kind of substratum. Their world distribution, in fact, partially or totally overlap that of their coral hosts.  相似文献   

15.
Associations between scale‐worms and giant mussels are common constituents of hydrothermal vent and cold seep ecosystems, but very little is known about their nature and ecology. Here, we analyze the ecological characteristics of the associations between Branchipolynoe seepensis, an obligate symbiotic polychaete, and their host mytilid mussels Bathymodiolus puteoserpentis and B. azoricus inhabiting hydrothermal vent fields on the Mid‐Atlantic Ridge. Infested mussels generally harbored a single symbiont (<4% had two to six worms). Infestation rate varied from 7.2% to 76.5%, increasing with mussel size, and was significantly lower for B. puteoserpentis. Symbiont density at Lucky Strike ranged between 1071 and 1191 individuals m−2. Female symbiont size was always positively correlated with host size, while only males and juveniles from small mussels showed the same trend. This suggested a relatively long‐lasting host/symbiont association for females and short‐lasting association with successive reproductive migrations for adult males. The sex ratio of symbionts was always biased in favor of females. Males were smaller and more slender than females and had one mode in their size distributions, whereas females typically had three or more modes, suggestive of a longer life span in females. Between 59.1% and 72.2% of mussels had damaged soft tissues with substantially higher incidence of trauma in infested ones, suggesting that symbionts may cause trauma. The symbionts also induce tunnel‐like structures among the ctenidia, indicating fidelity to a particular location inside the host. Based on our data, together with the fact that infested mussels became relatively wider than non‐infested ones, this association is considered parasitic (likely kleptoparasitic). Our data, together with those from previous studies, allowed us to define the main life‐history traits of B. seepensis: (i) the relationship with their host is parasitic, (ii) the association begins at the smallest mytilid size classes, (iii) there is sexual dimorphism in body size, (iv) sex ratio deviates from 1:1 in favor of females, (v) fertilization occurs through temporal pairing and pseudocopulation, (vi) sperm are stored by females, (vii) eggs are large (likely lecithotrophic or with direct development), (viii) females have a longer life span than males, (ix) adult males may be semalparous, undertaking reproductive migrations followed by a short period of pairing and then death, and (x) females have a semi‐continuous iteroparous reproductive cycle.  相似文献   

16.
Sponges are sessile organisms capable of colonizing diverse substrata. In the Caribbean, coral reefs have suffered a drastic decline, and branching corals of the genus Acropora have been widely decimated. On dead coral skeletons and around surviving tissue the settling of sessile organisms can be observed, sponges being common. In order to investigate whether or not sponges have a preference for a particular species of coral, or for specific microhabitats of the colonies, we evaluated species composition, cover, richness and diversity of sponges colonizing the dead parts of still live colonies of the branching corals Acropora palmata and Acropora cervicornis in five locations of the Tayrona National Natural Park in the Colombian Caribbean. Ten colonies of Ac. palmata were quantified in each of the five locations, and eight Ac. cervicornis colonies in each of two locations. Quantification was carried out using video taken within 0.625‐m2 photoquadrats. Seventeen sponge species were found, 13 of them associated with Ac. palmata and seven with Ac. cervicornis. Desmapsamma anchorata, Clathria venosa and Scopalina rutzleri were found to be common to all Ac. palmata locations, while De. anchorata occurred in the two Ac. cervicornis locations. On Ac. palmata, encrusting sponges dominated, while on Ac. cervicornis branched and lobed sponges predominated. Significant differences in sponge cover were not found among locations but were observed in the sponge species present. On Ac. palmata the species with highest cover were D. anchorata and Cla. venosa, while on Ac. cervicornis it was De. anchorata. The richness and diversity of sponges were low for both coral species, and their varying distribution can be attributed to the differences in available substrate for attachment, given coral colony morphology; for Ac. palmata, sponges predominated on the underside of the branches, semi‐cryptic areas and colony bases, whereas for Ac. cervicornis, they were located over the entire area of the cylindrical branches. Surviving colonies of Ac. palmata and Ac. cervicornis that are still erect offer additional microhabitats for reef sponges, some of which can be found directly interacting with live coral tissue, further threatening their recovery.  相似文献   

17.
Caribbean sponge species typical of coral reefs are generally inhibited from living in seagrass meadows by their vulnerability to predation by the large starfish Oreaster reticulatus (Linnaeus 1758). Although readily consumed by Oreaster , the conspicuous coral reef sponge species Lissodendoryx colombiensis Zea & van Soest, 1986 has expanded its habitat distribution to include a seagrass ( Thalassia testudinum Banks ex König, 1805) meadow in Belize, where individuals grow to volumes of nearly 7 l. By simple observation, L. colombiensis appears to be an inferior competitor in this system, because portions of many individuals are overgrown by seagrass sponge species. However, experimentally clustering seagrass sponges around L. colombiensis individuals deterred starfish from feeding on them, suggesting an advantage to being overgrown. Sizes of individual L. colombiensis can fluctuate widely over short time intervals, reflecting both a relatively fast growth rate and the high rate at which starfish consume this species. At the population level these fluctuations are not evident, as losses of L. colombiensis due to Oreaster are balanced by a combination of efficient recruitment, rapid regeneration and growth, and protection of portions of many individuals by the overgrowth of seagrass sponge species that are unpalatable to Oreaster . In turn, the seagrass sponges acquire stable perches on L. colombiensis individuals in this sediment-dominated habitat. Community ecology theory relating to diversity patterns in sessile organisms has focused on competition between space-requiring neighbors as the underlying process that inevitably decreases diversity unless curtailed. Sponges, with their propensity for engaging in beneficial interactions with neighbors, demand expansion of the theory to acknowledge how collaboration can increase abundance and species diversity within a community.  相似文献   

18.
Species of thyasirid bivalves are considered to be representative of early stages of chemosymbiosis, given that bacterial symbionts occur outside gill epithelial cells, vary among species in their abundance and nutritional importance, and are environmentally acquired. For these reasons, assessing the extent of host–symbiont specificity in thyasirids could provide valuable information on the evolution of chemosymbiosis. We show that individuals of two closely related and sympatric Thyasira cf. gouldi operational taxonomic units collected from three sites in a fjord in Newfoundland, Canada, associate with one of three distinct, closely related symbiont phylotypes. While associations show some site‐specificity, there is flexibility in host–symbiont pairings within the fjord, further supporting an early and relatively unspecific stage of chemosymbiosis in this family. Morphologic differences observed both within and among symbiont phylotypes suggest physiologic variation, possibly induced by small‐scale differences in sedimentary conditions.  相似文献   

19.
双壳纲贝类在深海特殊生境——热液、冷泉及有机沉落生态系统中分布广泛,并且在其体内常含有化能共生细菌为贝类提供营养物质。双壳纲贝类与化能共生菌形成的共生体系对于其适应深海还原性生境至关重要。近40 a来随着海洋科考力度加大,深海化能生境的神秘面纱被逐渐揭开,越来越多的深海物种被发现,双壳纲贝类无疑是这些化能生态系统中的优势物种。在此,我们对常见的深海化能共生双壳纲贝类与其内共生菌的互作研究进行总结,主要双壳纲门类包含贻贝科（Mytilidae）、囊螂科（Vesicomyidae）、蛏螂科（Solemyidae）、索足蛤科（Thyasiridae）和满月蛤科（Lucinidae）,梳理归纳的内容包括深海化能生态系统的发现、“双壳纲贝类—内共生菌”共生体系的组成、共生体系的营养互作、共生体系的建立与维持以及对未来研究的展望。对这些研究内容的总结有利于进一步加深我们对深海特殊生命系统中共生互作机制的认识。  相似文献   

20.
Coral bleaching, i.e. the loss of dinoflagellate symbionts from cnidarian hosts, is occurring globally at increasing rates, scales, and severity. The significance of these bleaching events to the health of coral reef ecosystems is extreme, as bleached corals exhibit high mortality, reduced fecundity and productivity and increased susceptibility to disease. This decreased coral fitness leads to reef degradation and ultimately to the breakdown of the coral reef ecosystem. To date there has been little work describing the application of biomarkers to assess coral health. The most commonly applied biomarker is, in fact, the bleaching event itself. We are interested in developing early warning biomarkers that can detect coral stress before bleaching occurs. Recently, several genes that are likely to function in regulating interactions between cnidarians and their symbionts have been characterized, using the temperate sea anemone Anthopleura elegantissima as a model species. One "symbiosis gene" identified from the host genome, sym32, is expressed as a function of anemone symbiotic-state, where sym32 expression is higher in symbiotic cf. aposymbiotic (symbiont-free) anemones. Real-time quantitative RT-PCR suggested that the level of sym32 expression was correlated with the abundance of algae in the host. Furthermore, laboratory exposures of anemones to low levels of cadmium (0, 20, 100 microg(-1) CdCl2; 14 days), which caused no change in algal cell numbers, resulted in a down-regulation of sym32 compared to controls, indicating that sym32 expression may serve as a new sensitive early warning biomarker of cnidarian-algal symbiosis breakdown.  相似文献   

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