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1.
We analyze the variability of the ambient magnetospheric field along Titan's orbit at 20.3 Saturn radii. However, while our preceding study (Simon et al., 2010) focused on Cassini magnetometer observations from the 62 Titan flybys (TA-T62) between October 2004 and October 2009, the present work discusses magnetic field data that were collected near Titan's orbit when the moon was far away. In analogy to the observations during TA-T62, the magnetospheric fields detected during these 79 “virtual” Titan flybys are strongly affected by the presence of Saturn's bowl-shaped and highly dynamic magnetodisk current sheet. We therefore provide a systematic classification of the magnetic field observations as magnetodisk current sheet or lobe-type scenarios. Among the 141 (62 real+79 virtual) crossings of Titan's orbit between July 2004 and December 2009, only 17 encounters (9 real+8 virtual) took place within quiet, magnetodisk lobe-type fields. During another 50 encounters (21 real+29 virtual), rapid transitions between current sheet and lobe fields were observed around the moon's orbital plane. Most of the encounters (54=22 real+32 virtual) occurred when Titan's orbit was embedded in highly distorted current sheet fields, thereby invalidating the frequently applied idealized picture of Titan interacting with a homogeneous and stationary magnetospheric background field. The locations of real and virtual Titan flybys are correlated to each other. Each of the 62 real Titan flybys possesses at least one virtual counterpart that occurred shortly before or after the real encounter and at nearly the same orbital position. A systematic comparison between Cassini magnetometer observations from the real Titan flybys and their virtual companions suggests that there is no clear evidence of Titan exerting a significant level of control on the vertical oscillatory motion of the magnetodisk near its orbit.  相似文献   

2.
We analyze the variability of the ambient magnetic field near Titan during Cassini encounters TA-T62 (October 2004-October 2009). Cassini magnetometer (MAG) data show that the moon's magnetic environment is strongly affected by its proximity to Saturn's warped and highly dynamic magnetodisk. In the nightside sector of Saturn's magnetosphere, the magnetic field near Titan is controlled by intense vertical flapping motions of the magnetodisk current sheet, alternately exposing the moon to radially stretched lobe-type fields and to more dipolar, but highly distorted current sheet fields. In southern summer, when most of the Cassini encounters took place, the magnetodisk current sheet was on average located above Titan's orbital plane. However, around equinox in August 2009, the distortions of Titan's magnetic environment due to the rapidly moving current sheet reached a maximum, thus suggesting that the equilibrium position of the sheet at that time was significantly closer to the moon's orbital plane. In the dayside magnetosphere, the formation of the magnetodisk lobes is partially suppressed due to the proximity of the magnetopause. Therefore, during most encounters that took place near noon, Titan was embedded in highly distorted current sheet fields. Within the framework of this study, we not only provide a systematic classification of all Titan flybys between October 2004 and October 2009 as lobe-type or current sheet scenarios, but we also calculate the magnetospheric background field near Titan's orbit whenever possible. Our results show that so far, there is not a single Cassini flyby that matches the frequently applied picture of Titan's plasma interaction from the pre-Cassini era (background field homogeneous, stationary and perpendicular to the moon's orbital plane). The time scales upon which the ambient magnetospheric field close to Titan undergoes significant changes range between only a few minutes and up to several hours. The implications for the development of numerical models for Titan's local plasma interaction are discussed as well.  相似文献   

3.
Equations of motion are established for a dynamical system in which a spacecraft flies close to and interacts with an outer planet and one or more of its satellites. For the computation of the state and mass partials needed in a simultaneous orbit correction ofn interacting bodies, a notably compact set of variational equations is derived. The above system of differential equations is integrated numerically on a computer.Spacecraft-satellite direction measurements accurate to ±10 were simulated along three representative trajectories (Mariner/Jupiter/Saturn 1977 missions) approaching Io, Titan, and Iapetus to within 41 000, 13 000, and 7 000 km, respectively. For example, from measurements distributed evenly at half-day intervals over a 60-day arc centered on encounter, but none so close that the satellite would fill more than 0.5° in the sky, the orbit of the satelliteand that of the spacraft can be estimated to about 100 km. In addition, the mass of the satellite is obtainable to 2.6% for Io, 1.4% for Titan, and 9% for Iapetus. If only measurements up to 3 days before satellite encounter are included, the orbit of the satelliteor that of the spacecraft can be estimated to about 300 km, all information on mass being lost.The paper concludes with a brief discussion of the need for future work on the orbits of the satellites of the outer planets.  相似文献   

4.
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5.
In 2001, NASA began assembling the Aerocapture Systems Analysis Team, a team of scientists and engineers from multiple NASA centers. Their charter is to perform high-fidelity analyses of delivering scientifically compelling orbital missions that use aerocapture for orbit insertion at their destinations. After establishing scientific credibility, studies focus on aerocapture systems design and performance, including approach navigation, flight mechanics, aerothermodynamics, and thermal protection. The team's October 2001-September 2002 study examined a mission to explore the organic environment of Titan and its chemical, geological, and dynamical context. Its architecture includes a Titan polar orbiter that would complete and extend Cassini's soon-to-begin global mapping, aiding global extrapolation of findings from a mobile in situ element (rover, blimp, etc.). The in situ element would perform remote sensing and in situ investigations, for analysis and characterization of Titan's surface, shallow subsurface, atmosphere, processes occurring there, and energy sources driving it all. The study concentrated on the orbiter and orbit insertion, largely treating the in situ element as a black box with data relay requirements. October 2002-September 2003 the team studied a mission to perform Cassini/Huygens-level exploration of the Neptune system. Before aerocapture this mission would deploy and support multiple Neptune atmospheric entry probes. After aerocapture the orbiter uses Triton as a “tour engine”, in much the same manner as Cassini uses Titan, to provide many Triton flybys and orbit evolution for detailed investigation of Neptune's interior, atmosphere, magnetosphere, rings, and satellites.This presentation summarizes the missions’ science objectives, instrumentation, and data requirements that served as the foundations for the studies, and describes mission design requirements and constraints that affect the science investigations.  相似文献   

6.
We report the results of detailed numerical calculations of the thermal thrust on the rapidly-spinning LAGEOS spacecraft. This thrust results from anisotropic emission of thermal radiation from its surface. LAGEOS is a good test case for such calculations because of its relatively simple structure and because precise orbit determinations based on laser ranging give observed thrust effects for comparison.The numerical integration includes the varying heating over spacecraft-surface latitude from earth infrared radiation (for the earth-Yarkovsky force) and the varying solar heating as the spacecraft moves in and out of the earth's shadow (for the solar-Yarkovsky force). The computation allows for the poor thermal coupling between the spacecraft structure and individual surface elements (the fused-silica cube-corner reflectors and their aluminum retainer rings), and the poor conduction between structural hemispheres.A Fourier analysis of the computed force with respect to orbital longitude gives the important frequency components for the computation of long-term orbit perturbations. Empirical formulas fit to the numerical results accurately express the component amplitudes as simple functions of spin axis orbital latitude, the sun aspect angle from the spin axis, and the fraction of the orbit period spent in the earth's shadow. These results. based on first principles, are similar to those from simplified theories of the thermal thrust. but add the following new feature: The decrease in orbit-averaged satellite temperature when the orbit intersects the earth's shadow decreases the earth-Yarkovsky drag by 0.14 pm/s2 from the no-eclipse value.The development of spacecraft-element thermal parameters is the most difficult part of the analysis; the paper tabulates the parameters that should be directly measured before the launch of future geodynamic satellites.  相似文献   

7.
TandEM: Titan and Enceladus mission   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  
《Experimental Astronomy》2009,23(3):893-946
TandEM was proposed as an L-class (large) mission in response to ESA’s Cosmic Vision 2015–2025 Call, and accepted for further studies, with the goal of exploring Titan and Enceladus. The mission concept is to perform in situ investigations of two worlds tied together by location and properties, whose remarkable natures have been partly revealed by the ongoing Cassini–Huygens mission. These bodies still hold mysteries requiring a complete exploration using a variety of vehicles and instruments. TandEM is an ambitious mission because its targets are two of the most exciting and challenging bodies in the Solar System. It is designed to build on but exceed the scientific and technological accomplishments of the Cassini–Huygens mission, exploring Titan and Enceladus in ways that are not currently possible (full close-up and in situ coverage over long periods of time). In the current mission architecture, TandEM proposes to deliver two medium-sized spacecraft to the Saturnian system. One spacecraft would be an orbiter with a large host of instruments which would perform several Enceladus flybys and deliver penetrators to its surface before going into a dedicated orbit around Titan alone, while the other spacecraft would carry the Titan in situ investigation components, i.e. a hot-air balloon (Montgolfière) and possibly several landing probes to be delivered through the atmosphere.  相似文献   

8.
The control of the orbital structure of the satellite constellation (SC) of continuous service with spacecraft in highly elliptical orbits of the Molniya type is considered. For ensuring the SC dynamic stability, it is proposed to use passive, active, and combined approaches to the SC orbital structure control. A statement of the problem to ensur e dynamic stability is given and results of its solution for a particular variant of the orbital construction of the Arktika-M space system are presented for the passive control approach. The proposed orbital structure control is based on minimizing the evolution-induced space-time deformation of the orbital structure by means of differentiated selection of initial parameters of orbits at the stages of the SC deployment and replenishment and by means of control of the spacecraft’s ground track at the SC operation stage. Using this control method is especially important with long active life spans of spacecraft and limitations on propellant margins for orbit correction.  相似文献   

9.
The analysis of relative motion of two spacecraft in Earth-bound orbits is usually carried out on the basis of simplifying assumptions. In particular, the reference spacecraft is assumed to follow a circular orbit, in which case the equations of relative motion are governed by the well-known Hill–Clohessy–Wiltshire equations. Circular motion is not, however, a solution when the Earth’s flattening is accounted for, except for equatorial orbits, where in any case the acceleration term is not Newtonian. Several attempts have been made to account for the \(J_2\) effects, either by ingeniously taking advantage of their differential effects, or by cleverly introducing ad-hoc terms in the equations of motion on the basis of geometrical analysis of the \(J_2\) perturbing effects. Analysis of relative motion about an unperturbed elliptical orbit is the next step in complexity. Relative motion about a \(J_2\)-perturbed elliptic reference trajectory is clearly a challenging problem, which has received little attention. All these problems are based on either the Hill–Clohessy–Wiltshire equations for circular reference motion, or the de Vries/Tschauner–Hempel equations for elliptical reference motion, which are both approximate versions of the exact equations of relative motion. The main difference between the exact and approximate forms of these equations consists in the expression for the angular velocity and the angular acceleration of the rotating reference frame with respect to an inertial reference frame. The rotating reference frame is invariably taken as the local orbital frame, i.e., the RTN frame generated by the radial, the transverse, and the normal directions along the primary spacecraft orbit. Some authors have tried to account for the non-constant nature of the angular velocity vector, but have limited their correction to a mean motion value consistent with the \(J_2\) perturbation terms. However, the angular velocity vector is also affected in direction, which causes precession of the node and the argument of perigee, i.e., of the entire orbital plane. Here we provide a derivation of the exact equations of relative motion by expressing the angular velocity of the RTN frame in terms of the state vector of the reference spacecraft. As such, these equations are completely general, in the sense that the orbit of the reference spacecraft need only be known through its ephemeris, and therefore subject to any force field whatever. It is also shown that these equations reduce to either the Hill–Clohessy–Wiltshire, or the Tschauner–Hempel equations, depending on the level of approximation. The explicit form of the equations of relative motion with respect to a \(J_2\)-perturbed reference orbit is also introduced.  相似文献   

10.
The Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIMS) instrument on the Cassini Saturn Orbiter returned spectral imaging data as the spacecraft undertook six close encounters with Titan beginning 7 July, 2004. Three of these flybys each produced overlapping coverage of two distinct regions of Titan's surface. Twenty-four points were selected on approximately opposite hemispheres to serve as photometric controls. Six points were selected in each of four reflectance classes. On one hemisphere each control point was observed at three distinct phase angles. From the derived phase coefficients, preliminary normal reflectances were derived for each reflectance class. The normal reflectance of Titan's surface units at 2.0178 μm ranged from 0.079 to 0.185 for the most absorbing to the most reflective units assuming no contribution from absorbing haze. When a modest haze contribution of τ=0.1 is considered these numbers increase to 0.089–0.215. We find that the lowest three reflectance classes have comparable normal reflectance on either hemisphere. However, for the highest brightness class the normal reflectance is higher on the hemisphere encompassing longitude 14–65° compared to the same high brightness class for the hemisphere encompassing 122–156° longitude. We conclude that an albedo dichotomy observed in continental sized units on Titan is due not only to one unit having more areal coverage of reflective material than the other but the material on the brighter unit is intrinsically more reflective than the most reflective material on the other unit. This suggests that surface renewal processes are more widespread on Titan's more reflective units than on its less reflective units.

We note that one of our photometric control points has increased in reflectance by 12% relative to the surrounding terrain from July of 2004 to April and May of 2005. Possible causes of this effect include atmospheric processes such as ground fog or orographic clouds; the suggestion of active volcanism cannot be ruled out.

Several interesting circular features which resembled impact craters were identified on Titan's surface at the time of the initial Titan flyby in July of 2004. We traced photometric profiles through two of these candidate craters and attempted to fit these profiles to the photometric properties expected from model depressions. We find that the best-fit attempt to model these features as craters requires that they be unrealistically deep, approximately 70 km deep. We conclude that despite their appearance, these circular features are not craters, however, the possibility that they are palimpsests cannot be ruled out.

We used two methods to test for the presence of vast expanses of liquids on Titan's surface that had been suggested to resemble oceans. Specular reflection of sunlight would be indicative of widespread liquids on the surface; we found no evidence of this. A large liquid body should also show uniformity in photometric profile; we found the profiles to be highly variable. The lack of specular reflection and the high photometric variability in the profiles across candidate oceans is inconsistent with the presence of vast expanses of flat-lying liquids on Titan's surface. While liquid accumulation may be present as small, sub-pixel-sized bodies, or in areas of the surface which still remain to be observed by VIMS, the presence of large ocean-sized accumulations of liquids can be ruled out.

The Cassini orbital tour offers the opportunity for VIMS to image the same parts of Titan's surface repeatedly at many different illumination and observation geometries. This creates the possibility of understanding the properties of Titan's atmosphere and haze by iteratively adapting models to create a best fit to the surface reflectance properties.  相似文献   


11.
Analytical equations describing the velocity and energy variation of a spacecraft in a Powered Swing-By maneuver in an elliptic system are presented. The spacecraft motion is limited to the orbital plane of the primaries. In addition to gravity, the spacecraft suffers the effect of an impulsive maneuver applied when it passes by the periapsis of its orbit around the secondary body of the system. This impulsive maneuver is defined by its magnitude \(\delta V\) and the angle that defines the direction of the impulse with respect to the velocity of the spacecraft (\(\alpha\)). The maneuver occurs in a system of main bodies that are in elliptical orbits, where the velocity of the secondary body varies according to its position in the orbit following the rules of an elliptical orbit. The equations are dependent on this velocity. The study is done using the “patched-conics approximation”, which is a method of simplifying the calculations of the trajectory of a spacecraft traveling around more than one celestial body. Solutions for the velocity and energy variations as a function of the parameters that define the maneuver are presented. An analysis of the efficiency of the powered Swing-By maneuver is also made, comparing it with the pure gravity Swing-by maneuver with the addition of an impulse applied outside the sphere of influence of the secondary body. After a general study, the techniques developed here are applied to the systems Sun-Mercury and Sun-Mars, which are real and important systems with large eccentricity. This problem is highly nonlinear and the dynamics very complex, but very reach in applications.  相似文献   

12.
Saturn's satellite Hyperion experiences large perturbations by Titan, the largest of Saturn's satellites, because of the closeness of Hyperion's orbital period to three-quarters of that of Titan.The motion of Hyperion is a superposition of periodic fluctuations (both free and forced) onto a motion which is periodic in a suitable uniformly rotating frame of reference, and in which Hyperion would be at a maximum distance from Saturn at each conjunction with Titan.Successive attempts to determine the mass of Titan from observed perturbations of Hyperion have suffered from omissions in the theory of terms subsequently found to be significant.An attempt is in progress which, it is believed, comprises all long-period changes in the osculating elements which are of second degree in the mass of Titan, and of third degree in the eccentricity of its orbit. Results so far obtained indicate that the period of the free motion of the orbit plane of Hyperion is better determined by Woltjer's reduction of the observations than by his theoretical calculations.Presented at the Conference on Celestial Mechanics, Oberwolfach, Germany, August 27–September 2, 1972.  相似文献   

13.
Saturn's largest moon, Titan, provides an interesting opportunity to study how dense atmospheres interact with the surrounding plasma environment. Without an intrinsic magnetic field, this satellite's nitrogen-rich atmosphere is relatively unprotected from plasma interactions. Therefore, the energy-deposition rate is important for understanding chemistry and dynamics in Titan's atmosphere. Since the plasma environment can vary significantly we focus here on the T18 Titan encounter using in-situ data from instruments on board the Cassini spacecraft. These instruments cannot provide in-situ information below the spacecraft closest approach altitude (∼>960 km) so we use the Cassini magnetospheric imaging instrument (MIMI) ion-neutral camera (INCA) to remotely image energetic hydrogen particle fluxes (20-80 keV) at altitudes below Titan closest approach. We also use the MIMI low-energy magnetosphere measurements system (LEMMS) to measure the incident ion fluxes as the spacecraft approaches Titan and combine these data sets with an atmospheric model to first reproduce INCA images. We then use this model to calculate the energy-deposition profiles for the observed incident proton flux. Our model is able to reproduce the INCA observations and give the energy density deposited vs. altitude in Titan's atmosphere; however, we find that the incident fluxes and energy-deposition profiles vary significantly during the encounter.  相似文献   

14.
In this paper, we study the invariant manifold and its application in transfer trajectory problem from a low Earth parking orbit to the Sun-Earth \(L_{1}\) and \(L_{2}\)-halo orbits with the inclusion of radiation pressure and oblateness. Invariant manifold of the halo orbit provides a natural entrance to travel the spacecraft in the solar system along some specific paths due to its strong hyperbolic character. In this regard, the halo orbits near both collinear Lagrangian points are computed first. The manifold’s approximation near the nominal halo orbit is computed using the eigenvectors of the monodromy matrix. The obtained local approximation provides globalization of the manifold by applying backward time propagation to the governing equations of motion. The desired transfer trajectory well suited for the transfer is explored by looking at a possible intersection between the Earth’s parking orbit of the spacecraft and the manifold.  相似文献   

15.
David Parry Rubincam   《Icarus》2007,192(2):460-468
Photon thrust from shape alone can produce quasi-secular changes in an asteroid's orbital elements. An asteroid in an elliptical orbit with a north–south shape asymmetry can steadily alter its elements over timescales longer than one orbital trip about the Sun. This thrust, called here orbital YORP (YORP = Yarkovsky–O'Keefe–Radzievskii–Paddack), operates even in the absence of thermal inertia, which the Yarkovsky effects require. However, unlike the Yarkovsky effects, which produce secular orbital changes over millions or billions of years, the change in an asteroid's orbital elements from orbital YORP operates only over the precession timescale of the orbit or of the asteroid's spin axis; this is generally only thousands or tens of thousands of years. Thus while the orbital YORP timescale is too short for an asteroid to secularly journey very far, it is long enough to warrant investigation with respect to 99942 Apophis, which might conceivably impact the Earth in 2036. A near-maximal orbital YORP effect is found by assuming Apophis is without thermal inertia and is shaped like a hemisphere, with its spin axis lying in the orbital plane. With these assumptions orbital YORP can change its along-track position by up to ±245 km, which is comparable to Yarkovsky effects. Though Apophis' shape, thermal properties, and spin axis orientation are currently unknown, the practical upper and lower limits are liable to be much less than the ±245 km extremes. Even so, the uncertainty in position is still likely to be much larger than the 0.5 km “keyhole” Apophis must pass through during its close approach in 2029 in order to strike the Earth in 2036.  相似文献   

16.
Two special cases of the problem of the secular perturbations in the orbital elements of a satellite with a negligible mass produced by the joint influence of the oblateness of the central planet and the attraction by its most massive (or main) satellites and the Sun are considered. These cases are among the integrable ones in the general nonintegrable evolution problem. The first case is realized when the plane of the satellite orbit and the rotation axis of the planet lie in its orbital plane. The second case is realized when the plane of the satellite orbit is orthogonal to the line of intersection between the equatorial and orbital planes of the planet. The corresponding particular solutions correspond to those polar satellite orbits for which the main qualitative features of the evolution of the eccentricity and pericenter argument are described here. Families of integral curves have been constructed in the phase plane of these elements for the satellite systems of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus.  相似文献   

17.
Nearly all adaptive optics images of Titan taken between December 2001 and November 2004 showed tropospheric clouds located within 30° of the south pole. We report here on a dissipation of Titan's south polar clouds observed in twenty-nine Keck and Gemini images taken between December 2004 and April 2005. The near complete lack of south polar cloud activity during this time, and subsequent resurgence months later at generally higher latitudes, may be the beginning of seasonal change in Titan's weather. The ∼5 month decrease in cloud activity may also have been caused by methane rainout from a large cloud event in October 2004. Understanding the seasonal evolution of Titan's clouds, and of any precipitation associated with them, is essential for interpreting the geological observations of fluid flow features observed over a wide range of Titan latitudes with the Cassini/Huygens spacecraft.  相似文献   

18.
For several years now, an experimental simulation of Titan's atmosphere has been on going at LISA. A cold plasma is established in a gas mixture representative of the atmosphere of the satellite. In these experiments, more than 70 organic compounds have been identified, including the first identification in this type of experimental simulation of C4N2 already detected in its solid form on Titan, which suggests that the setup correctly mimics the chemistry of Titan's atmosphere.We have carried out the first experimental simulation including O-containing compounds in order to study the influence of the presence of CO on the chemical behavior of Titan's atmosphere. With the help of gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and infrared spectroscopy (IRS) we can thus determine which minor species still undetected in Titan's atmosphere are likely to be present and understand the complex chemistry of the atmosphere of this satellite. Surprisingly we have identified unpredicted O-containing gaseous compounds, mainly ethylene oxide (also named oxirane, C2H4O). This molecule has been observed in the interstellar medium by observation in the millimeter region (Astrophys. J. 489 (1997) 553; Astron. Astrophys. 337 (1998) 275). On the contrary, the predicted O-compounds (formaldehyde and methanol) have not been identified in this experiment. Furthermore, we have identified NH3 in the gaseous products with an initial mixture of N2 (98%) and CH4 (2%).The paper describes the experimental device used in this work, in particular the IRS and GC–MS techniques. We also comment the results related to the detection of the O-containing compounds and NH3 and their implications on our knowledge of the chemistry of Titan's atmosphere and on the retrieval of the future Titan data expected from Cassini-Huygens.  相似文献   

19.
Cassini observations of the surface of Titan offer unprecedented views of its surface through atmospheric windows in the 1-5 μm region. Images obtained in windows for which the haze opacity is low can be used to derive quantitative photometric parameters such as albedo and albedo distribution, and physical properties such as roughness and particle characteristics. Images from the early Titan flybys, particularly T0, Ta, and T5 have been analyzed to create albedo maps in the 2.01 and 2.73 μm windows. We find the average normal reflectance at these two wavelengths to be 0.15±0.02 and 0.035±0.003, respectively. Titan's surface is bifurcated into two albedo regimes, particularly at 2.01 μm. Analysis of these two regimes to understand the physical character of the surface was accomplished with a macroscopic roughness model. We find that the two types of surface have substantially different roughness, with the low-albedo surface exhibiting mean slope angles of ∼18°, and the high-albedo terrain having a much more substantial roughness with a mean slope angle of ∼34°. A single-scattering phase function approximated by a one-term Henyey-Greenstein equation was also fit to each unit. Titan's surface is back-scattering (g∼0.3-0.4), and does not exhibit substantially different backscattering behavior between the two terrains. Our results suggest that two distinct geophysical domains exist on Titan: a bright region cut by deep drainage channels and a relatively smooth surface. The two terrains are covered by a film or a coating of particles perhaps precipitated from the satellite's haze layer and transported by eolian processes. Our results are preliminary: more accurate values for the surface albedo and physical parameters will be derived as more data is gathered by the Cassini spacecraft and as a more complete radiative transfer model is developed from both Cassini orbiter and Huygens Lander measurements.  相似文献   

20.
From photogrammetric analysis of stereo images of Mercury obtained during three MESSENGER flybys, we have produced three digital terrain models (DTMs) that have a grid spacing of 1 km and together cover 30% of the planet's surface. The terrain models provide a rich source of information on the morphology of Mercury's surface, including details of tectonic scarp systems as well as impact craters and basins. More than 400 craters larger than 15 km in diameter are included in the models. Additionally, the models provide important test cases for the analysis of stereo image data to be collected during MESSENGER's orbital mission phase. Small lateral offsets and differences in trends between stereo DTMs and laser altimeter profiles may be due to remaining errors in spacecraft position, instrument pointing, or Mercury coordinate knowledge. Such errors should be resolved during the orbital mission phase, when more joint analyses of data and detailed orbit modeling will be possible.  相似文献   

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