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1.
We evaluate the accuracy of the speed-up provided in several wind-loading standards by comparison with wind-tunnel measurements and numerical predictions, which are carried out at a nominal scale of 1:500 and full-scale, respectively. Airflow over two- and three-dimensional bell-shaped hills is numerically modelled using the Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes method with a pressure-driven atmospheric boundary layer and three different turbulence models. Investigated in detail are the effects of grid size on the speed-up and flow separation, as well as the resulting uncertainties in the numerical simulations. Good agreement is obtained between the numerical prediction of speed-up, as well as the wake region size and location, with that according to large-eddy simulations and the wind-tunnel results. The numerical results demonstrate the ability to predict the airflow over a hill with good accuracy with considerably less computational time than for large-eddy simulation. Numerical simulations for a three-dimensional hill show that the speed-up and the wake region decrease significantly when compared with the flow over two-dimensional hills due to the secondary flow around three-dimensional hills. Different hill slopes and shapes are simulated numerically to investigate the effect of hill profile on the speed-up. In comparison with more peaked hill crests, flat-topped hills have a lower speed-up at the crest up to heights of about half the hill height, for which none of the standards gives entirely satisfactory values of speed-up. Overall, the latest versions of the National Building Code of Canada and the Australian and New Zealand Standard give the best predictions of wind speed over isolated hills.  相似文献   

2.
A model is presented which calculates the changes of the velocity variances and stress uw in flow over gentle isolated hills. At intermediate frequencies spectra of the velocity components are modified according to rapid distortion theory. At low frequencies spectral densities change in proportion to the square of the mean wind. The inner and outer layer of the flow are distinguished. Streamline curvature effects are accounted for in the vertical velocity variance and the covariance.The sensitivity of the model to several parameters is investigated. Then, its results are compared with measurements of turbulent flow over various hills and an escarpment. The model is able to simulate the structure of the modified variance and covariance fields although larger differences occur at individual positions. The calculated modified spectra compare well with observed spectra.  相似文献   

3.
Big eddies in the outer part of the atmospheric boundary layer contribute to the variance of the horizontal velocity fluctuations near the surface. Because of the slow adjustment of these eddies to new boundary conditions, they carry the roughness characteristics of a large upstream terrain. A scaling relation is proposed that accounts for the memory effects in the big eddies. It is concluded that the standard deviation of the horizontal wind ( u ) measured at a given height is representative for the shear stress at greater height. This gives at least qualitative support to existing work where u is used for exposure correction of mean wind.  相似文献   

4.
The changes imposed on mean velocities and turbulence statistics in the lower atmosphere by an abrupt change in surface roughness, from very rough to smooth, were modelled in a wind tunnel. The influence of a change in the effective surface level, which often accompanies such a variation in surface roughness, was also studied. A deep, turbulent flow was generated upstream of the change, which had a logarithmic mean velocity profile and constant shear-stress for approximately 200 mm above the floor, except for a region near the surface which was influenced by the three-dimensional nature of the random rough surface.When the surface roughness change coincided with a change in surface level, the downstream flow close to the surface was in the wake of the upstream roughness elements, and measured Reynolds shear-stress values were lower than those obtained when the downstream surface was raised. Otherwise, the influence of a change in surface level was small.In all cases, Reynolds shear-stress varied approximately linearly with height in the lower two-thirds of the internal layer and no constant stress region was apparent near the surface, even 2 m downstream of the roughness change. When the roughness change was not accompanied by a change in level, Reynolds shear-stress values extrapolated to the surface agreed well with surface shear-stress inferred from the law of the wall.Changes in mean squares of vertical and lateral velocity fluctuations and in integral time scales, as the flow passed downstream of the roughness change, were surprisingly small.  相似文献   

5.
Between 1975 and 1977, the Centre Scientifique et Technique du Bâtiment (CSTB) carried out a study of the overspeed effect over a hill in the surface boundary layer. The hill in question was situated in open country and had a drop of about 100 m for an average slope of 8%. The experimental equipment consisted of three 25 m high masts placed along the upwind slope of the hill. Each mast was equipped with four Gill Propeller anemometers. The data set analyzed consisted of 65 recordings of strong winds which had an average velocity greater than 6 m s-1.Near the ground, local topographic effects and inhomogeneous roughness along the slope have the same influence on the overspeed effect as the mean slope of the hill. The overspeed is proportional to the upwind slope, but on the other hand, the turbulence structure does not seem to be disturbed by the hill.  相似文献   

6.
Numerical simulation of turbulent convective flow over wavy terrain   总被引：1，自引：1，他引：0  
By means of a large-eddy simulation, the convective boundary layer is investigated for flows over wavy terrain. The lower surface varies sinusoidally in the downstream direction while remaining constant in the other. Several cases are considered with amplitude up to 0.15H and wavelength ofH to 8H, whereH is the mean fluid-layer height. At the lower surface, the vertical heat flux is prescribed to be constant and the momentum flux is determined locally from the Monin-Obukhov relationship with a roughness lengthz o=10–4 H. The mean wind is varied between zero and 5w *, wherew * is the convective velocity scale. After rather long times, the flow structure shows horizontal scales up to 4H, with a pattern similar to that over flat surfaces at corresponding shear friction. Weak mean wind destroys regular spatial structures induced by the surface undulation at zero mean wind. The surface heating suppresses mean-flow recirculation-regions even for steep surface waves. Short surface waves cause strong drag due to hydrostatic and dynamic pressure forces in addition to frictional drag. The pressure drag increases slowly with the mean velocity, and strongly with /H. The turbulence variances increase mainly in the lower half of the mixed layer forU/w *>2.  相似文献   

7.
A one-dimensional model of the nocturnal boundary layer (NBL) has been used to investigate the time variation of the NBL height for stationary and horizontally homogeneous synoptic conditions. The time variation of the well known quantity = hflu * has been shown to be related to the wind variation at the top of the NBL. For the simple simulated conditions, this variation depends only on the roughness length and the Coriolis parameter. The value of averaged over the whole night is a function of the friction velocity. An expression is proposed for which is compared with observations. Under stationary external conditions, the new relation improves the determination of the NBL height if compared with the classical relation using a constant value of .  相似文献   

8.
Summary The relative strength of the stabilizing effect of buoyancy and the destabilizing effect of velocity shear in a stratified shear flow, such as a stable atmospheric boundary layer, is measured by the gradient Richardson number, Rig. The boundary layer static stability, as described by the buoyancy frequency, N, can be calculated from the virtual potential temperature gradient derived from RASS temperature profiles. The mean wind profiles from a sodar can be used to calculate the mean vertical velocity shear. In combination these profilers are potentially a powerful tool for the remotely sensing the dynamic stability of the boundary layer. However, experience shows that the combinations of two experimentally derived quantities, like N and shear, may give highly variable results. On the other hand, a simple sensitivity analysis shows that reasonable estimates of Rig are achievable over a range of conditions in the stable nocturnal boundary layer. To test this conclusion, high spatial and temporal resolution temperature and velocity soundings were obtained above 50m in the stable nocturnal boundary layer using a 920MHz continuous wave Radio Acoustic Sounding System (RASS) and 1.875kHz and 5.00kHz Doppler sodars. Examples of the evolution of Rig are presented from 24 hours of observations of the boundary layer in Canberra, on the tablelands in south- eastern Australia. Most of the boundary layer had Rig between 0.1 and 1. Thus, it was marginally dynamically stable, even with the gradient Richardson number calculated from finite differences over a vertical interval of 68m. A comparison of the results from the two sodars showed that the velocity shear increased significantly when the vertical differencing interval was decreased from 68m to 20m.  相似文献   

9.
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10.
Given incident logarithmic profiles of wind and pollutant concentration above a rough, absorbing surface, the three-dimensional distribution of pollutant concentration over a hill of gentle slope is determined from a linearized model. The model is applied in neutrally stratified flow, without chemistry, and is integrated using spectral methods in the horizontal and a finite-difference scheme in the vertical. This approach allows for flexibility in choosing a closure scheme and a variety of surface boundary conditions. This was not possible in the analytic approach of Padro (1987) who added pollutant concentration and flux to the MS3DJH/1 model of Walmsley et al. (1980). The present model requires as input the turbulent kinetic energy, E, dissipation, , and the perturbation vertical velocity, w, from the three-dimensional boundary-layer flow model of Beljaars et al. (1987), hereinafter referred to as MSFD, The latter model also supplies wind velocity perturbations at the upper boundary, as input to upper boundary conditions on the pollutant flux perturbations.The present study describes applications of the model to idealized terrain features: isolated two- and three-dimensional hills and ridges and an infinite series of ridges. (Application to real terrain, however, presents no difficulties.) Comparisons were made with different (though uniform) surface roughnesses. Tests were performed to examine the effect of upstream terrain features in the periodic domain and to illustrate the importance of the vertical resolution of the output for interpreting results from the sinusoidal terrain case.  相似文献   

11.
Airflow over two-dimensional hills was investigated in a wind tunnel using particle image velocimetry. We focus on the flow separation behaviour. A trapezoidal hill shape was used in most of the experimental runs, but the critical slope angle for flow separation was approximately the same as that established for smooth hill shapes. The re-attachment point of the separated flow became farther from the hill as the slope angle $\theta $ increased, reaching a saturation of about seven times the hill height for $\theta \gtrsim 60^\circ $ . Increasing the upwind surface roughness length was found to suppress flow separation. This tendency is analogous to the previous experimental results for turbulent boundary layers on flat plates. The boundary-layer thickness varied by the presence or absence of Counihan-type spires and a castellated fence at the test-section entrance had negligible effect on the flow separation.  相似文献   

12.
To investigate how velocity variances and spectra are modified by the simultaneous action of topography and canopy, two flume experiments were carried out on a train of gentle cosine hills differing in surface cover. The first experiment was conducted above a bare surface while the second experiment was conducted within and above a densely arrayed rod canopy. The velocity variances and spectra from these two experiments were compared in the middle, inner, and near-surface layers. In the middle layer, and for the canopy surface, longitudinal and vertical velocity variances () were in phase with the hill-induced spatial mean velocity perturbation (Δu) around the so-called background state (taken here as the longitudinal mean at a given height) as predicted by rapid distortion theory (RDT). However, for the bare surface case, and remained out of phase with Δu by about L/2, where L is the hill half-length. In the canopy layer, wake production was a significant source of turbulent energy for , and its action was to re-align velocity variances with Δu in those layers, a mechanism completely absent for the bare surface case. Such a lower ‘boundary condition’ resulted in longitudinal variations of to be nearly in phase with Δu above the canopy surface. In the inner and middle layers, the spectral distortions by the hill remained significant for the background state of the bare surface case but not for the canopy surface case. In particular, in the inner and middle layers of the bare surface case, the effective exponents derived from the locally measured power spectra diverged from their expected  − 5/3 value for inertial subrange scales. These departures spatially correlated with the hill surface. However, for the canopy surface case, the spectral exponents were near  − 5/3 above the canopy though the minor differences from  − 5/3 were also correlated with the hill surface. Inside the canopy, wake production and energy short-circuiting resulted in significant departures from  − 5/3. These departures from  − 5/3 also appeared correlated with the hill surface through the wake production contribution and its alignment with Δu. Moreover, scales commensurate with Von Karman street vorticies well described wake production scales inside the canopy, confirming the important role of the mean flow in producing wakes. The spectra inside the canopy on the lee side of the hill, where a negative mean flow delineated a recirculation zone, suggested that the wake production scales there were ‘broader’ when compared to their counterpart outside the recirculation zone. Inside the recirculation zone, there was significantly more energy at higher frequencies when compared to regions outside the recirculation zone.  相似文献   

13.
The notion of an internal boundary layer (IBL) appeared in studies of local advection within the atmospheric boundary layer when air flows over a change in surface conditions. These include surface roughness, thermal and moisture properties. An ability to predict the height of the IBL interface in the atmosphere under neutral stability, accompanied by certain assumptions on the form of the mean flow parameters, have been a means of obtaining information on the velocity profile after step changes in roughness for more than half a century. A compendium of IBL formulae is presented. The approach based on the diffusion analogy of Miyake receives close attention. The empirical expression of Savelyev and Taylor (2001, Boundary Layer Meteorol. 101, 293–301) suggested that turbulent diffusion is not the only factor that influences IBL growth. An argument is offered that an additional element, mean vertical velocity or streamline displacement, should be taken into account. Vertical velocity is parameterized in terms of horizontal velocity differences employing continuity constraints and scaling. Published data are analyzed from a new point of view, which produces two new neutral stratification formulae. The first implies that the roughness lengths of adjacent surfaces are equally important and a combined length scale can be constructed. In addition new formulae to predict the height of the region of diabatic flow affected by a step change in surface conditions are obtained as an extension of the neutral flow case.  相似文献   

14.
The two-layer system of an atmosphere over water bodies is reduced to a single-layer problem. Values of the interfacial quantities, such as the friction velocity, the surface velocity, the angles, and , between the surface shear stress and the geostrophic wind velocity and the surface wind velocity, respectively, and the surface roughness, all of which depend upon external parameters, such as the geostrophic wind and stratifications, are obtained. The geostrophic drag coefficient C d, the geostrophic wind coefficient C f, and the angles , and , of the turbulent flow at the sea-air interface are functions of a dimensionless number, mfG/kg, with S 1 and S 2 as two free stratification parameters. The surface roughness is uniquely determined from the geostrophic wind rather than from the wind profile in the boundary layer.Formerly Visiting Research Associate, Applied Physics Branch, Earth Observations Division, NASA-Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, Texas.  相似文献   

15.
Simultaneous particle-image velocimetry and laser-induced fluorescence combined with large-eddy simulations are used to investigate the flow and pollutant dispersion behaviour in a rural-to-urban roughness transition. The urban roughness is characterized by an array of cubical obstacles in an aligned arrangement. A plane fence is added one obstacle height h upstream of the urban roughness elements, with three different fence heights considered. A smooth-wall turbulent boundary layer with a depth of 10h is used as the approaching flow, and a passive tracer is released from a uniform line source 1h upstream of the fence. A shear layer is formed at the top of the fence, which increases in strength for the higher fence cases, resulting in a deeper internal boundary layer (IBL). It is found that the mean flow for the rural-to-urban transition can be described by means of a mixing-length model provided that the transitional effects are accounted for. The mixing-length formulation for sparse urban canopies, as found in the literature, is extended to take into account the blockage effect in dense canopies. Additionally, the average mean concentration field is found to scale with the IBL depth and the bulk velocity in the IBL.  相似文献   

16.
A flow situation over coastal waters of the Baltic Sea is studied. The boundary layer was characterized by stable stratification and the presence of a pronounced low level jet at very low height, 30–150 m, above the surface of the sea. The atmospheric surface layer was apparently extremely shallow; thus the non-dimensional wind gradients and temperature gradients derived from measurements at 8 m do not show adherence to Monin-Obukhov similarity, in sharp contrast to findings from the same site at similar stability conditions but with no low level jet. Instead these quantities are shown to be governed by scales characteristic of stable shear flow away from the surface. The height to the jet centre appears to be an important quantity. Thus, for the cases with the lowest jet height values (30–50 m), some turbulent characteristics of the flow (non-dimensional velocity standard deviations and the correlation between the longitudinal and vertical velocity) have values similar to those found for the zero pressure-gradient laboratory boundary layer over a flat plate (the so called canonical boundary layer) rather than the typical values found in atmospheric boundary-layer flow. It was inferred that the large scale fluctuations known as inactive turbulence, as well as gravity waves, were suppressed in this case.  相似文献   

17.
A numerical model is developed for two-dimensional turbulent boundary-layer flow above gentle topography — defined as not giving rise to mean flow separation. Although the model is formulated in a framework of mixing length and turbulent energy equation models for the surface layer of the atmospheric boundary layer, it could be modified to include higher-order closure hypotheses and/or extended to model gentle topography for the planetary boundary layer or on the sea bed. Results are presented for flow above a specific shape of hill and the effects of surface roughness and hill height are investigated.  相似文献   

18.
Precise urban atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) wind tunnel simulations are essential for a wide variety of atmospheric studies in built-up environments including wind loading of structures and air pollutant dispersion. One of key issues in addressing these problems is a proper choice of simulation length scale. In this study, an urban ABL was reproduced in a boundary layer wind tunnel at different scales to study possible scale effects. Two full-depth simulations and one part-depth simulation were carried out using castellated barrier wall, vortex generators, and a fetch of roughness elements. Redesigned “Counihan” vortex generators were employed in the part-depth ABL simulation. A hot-wire anemometry system was used to measure mean velocity and velocity fluctuations. Experimental results are presented as mean velocity, turbulence intensity, Reynolds stress, integral length scale of turbulence, and power spectral density of velocity fluctuations. Results suggest that variations in length-scale factor do not influence the generated ABL models when using similarity criteria applied in this study. Part-depth ABL simulation compares well with two full-depth ABL simulations indicating the truncated vortex generators developed for this study can be successfully employed in urban ABL part-depth simulations.  相似文献   

19.
During the last two decades, different scalings for convective boundary layer (CBL) turbulence have been proposed. For the shear-free regime, Deardorff (1970) introduced convective velocity and temperature scales based on the surface potential temperature flux,Q s , the buoyancy parameter, , and the time-dependent boundary-layer depth,h. Wyngaard (1983) has proposed decomposition of turbulence into two components, bottom-up (b) and top-down (t), the former characterized byQ s , the latter, by the potential temperature flux due to entrainment,Q h . Sorbjan (1988) has devised height-dependent velocity and temperature scales for both b- and t-components of turbulence.Incorporating velocity shear, the well known similarity theory of Monin and Obukhov (1954) has been developed for the atmospheric surface layer. Zilitinkevich (1971, 1973) and Betchov and Yaglom (1971) have elaborated this theory with the aid of directional dimensional analysis for a particular case when different statistical moments of turbulence can be alternatively attributed as being of either convective or mechanical origin.In the present paper, we attempt to create a bridge between the two approaches pointed out above. A new scaling is proposed on the basis of, first, decomposition of statistical moments of turbulence into convective (c), mechanical (m) and covariance (c&m) contributions using directional dimensional analysis and, second, decomposition of these contributions into bottom-up and top-down components using height-dependent velocity and temperature scales. In addition to the statistical problem, the scaling suggests a new approach of determination of mean temperature and velocity profiles with the aid of the budget equations for the mean square fluctuations.Notation ATL alternative turbulence layer - CBL convective boundary layer - CML convective and mechanical layer - FCL free convection layer - MTL mechanical turbulence layer  相似文献   

20.
Horizontal u and vertical w velocity fluctuations have been measured together with temperature fluctuations in the atmospheric surface layer, at a small height above a wheat crop canopy. Marginal probability density functions are presented for both individual fluctuations u, w, and for the instantaneous Reynolds stress uw, and heat fluxes w and u. Probability density functions of the velocity fluctuations deviate less significantly from the Gaussian form than the probability density of temperature. There appears to be closer similarity between statistics of the instantaneous heat fluxes than between the momentum flux and either of the heat fluxes investigated. The mean momentum flux receives equal contributions from the events referred to as ejections and sweeps in laboratory boundary layers. Sweeps provide the largest contribution to the heat fluxes.  相似文献   

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