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1.
In recent years, various attempts have been made to estimate the amount of numerical mixing in numerical ocean models due to discretisation errors of advection schemes. In this study, a high-resolution coastal model using the ocean circulationmodel GETM is applied to the Western Baltic Sea, which is characterised by energetic and episodic inflows of dense bottom waters originating from the Kattegat. The model is equipped with an easy-to-implement diagnostic method for obtaining the numerical mixing which has recently been suggested. In this diagnostic method, the physical mixing is defined as the mean tracer variance decay rate due to turbulent mixing. The numerical mixing due to discretisation errors of tracer advection schemes is defined as the decay rate between the advected square of the tracer variance and the square of the advected tracer, which can be directly compared to the physical variance decay. The source and location of numerical mixing is further investigated by comparing different advection schemes and analysing the amount of numerical mixing in each spatial dimension during the advection time step. The results show that, for the setup used, the numerically and physically induced mixing have the same orders of magnitude but with different vertical and horizontal distributions. As the main mechanism for high numerical mixing, vertical advection of tracers with strong vertical gradients has been identified. The main reason for high numerical mixing is due to bottom-following coordinates when density gradients, especially for regions of steep slopes, are advected normal to isobaths. With the bottom-following coordinates used here, the horizontal gradients are reproduced by a spurious sawtooth-type profile where strong advection through, but not along, the vertical coordinate levels occurs. Additionally, the well known relation between strong tracer gradients and high velocities on the one and high numerical mixing on the other hand is approved quantitatively within this work.  相似文献   

2.
A new numerical model for simulating estuarine dynamics is introduced here. This model, called General Estuarine Transport Model (GETM), has been specifically designed for reproducing baroclinic, bathymetry-guided flows where the tidal range may exceed the mean water depth in large parts of the domain such that drying and flooding processes are relevant. Several physical and numerical features of the model support exact and stable results for such domains. For the physics, high-order turbulence closure schemes guarantee proper reproduction of vertical exchange processes. Among the specific numerical features, generalised vertical coordinates, orthogonal curvilinear horizontal coordinates, high-order TVD advection schemes and stable drying and flooding algorithms have been implemented into GETM. The model is applied here to simulate the dynamics of estuarine turbidity maxima (ETMs), a complex feature present in most tidal estuaries. First, idealised simulations for a two-dimensional domain in the xz space will be shown to reproduce the basic generation mechanisms for ETMs. Then, a realistic three-dimensional simulation of the Elbe estuary in Northern Germany will be carried out. It is demonstrated that for a given forcing situation the model reproduces a stable ETM at the correct location.Responsible Editor: Phil Dyke  相似文献   

3.
This article presents some advantages using a shape-preserving total variation diminishing (TVD) advection scheme in an ecosystem model. The superbee flux-limiter has been used to the second-order Lax–Wendroff advection scheme to make it TVD. We performed simulations for three shelf sea regions with different characteristic time scales, namely, the North Sea, the Barents Sea, and the Baltic Sea. To explore the advantages, we also performed reference runs with the much simpler and computationally cheaper upwind advection scheme. Frontal structures are much better resolved with the TVD scheme. The bottom salinity in the Baltic Sea stays at realistic values throughout the 10-year simulation with the TVD scheme, while with the upwind scheme, it drifts towards lower values and the permanent haline stratification in the Baltic is almost completely eroded within one seasonal cycle. Only when applying TVD for both the vertical and horizontal advections the model succeeded to preserve haline stratification in the decadal simulation. Lower trophic level patterns are far better reproduced with the TVD scheme, and for the estimated cod larval survival, the advantages seem to be even stronger. Simulations using the TVD-derived prey fields identified distinct regions such as Dogger Bank to favor potential larvae survival (PLS), which did not appear as particularly favorable in the upstream simulations. The TVD scheme needs about 25?% more time on the central processing unit (CPU) in case of a pure hydrodynamic setup with only two scalar state variables (Barents Sea application). The additional CPU time cost increases for a coupled physical–biological model application with a large number of state variables. However, this is more than compensated by all the advantages found, and, hence, we conclude that it is worthwhile to use the TVD scheme in our ecosystem model.  相似文献   

4.
Barthel  Knut  Daewel  Ute  Pushpadas  Dhanya  Schrum  Corinna  &#;rthun  Marius  Wehde  Henning 《Ocean Dynamics》2012,62(10):1457-1470

This article presents some advantages using a shape-preserving total variation diminishing (TVD) advection scheme in an ecosystem model. The superbee flux-limiter has been used to the second-order Lax–Wendroff advection scheme to make it TVD. We performed simulations for three shelf sea regions with different characteristic time scales, namely, the North Sea, the Barents Sea, and the Baltic Sea. To explore the advantages, we also performed reference runs with the much simpler and computationally cheaper upwind advection scheme. Frontal structures are much better resolved with the TVD scheme. The bottom salinity in the Baltic Sea stays at realistic values throughout the 10-year simulation with the TVD scheme, while with the upwind scheme, it drifts towards lower values and the permanent haline stratification in the Baltic is almost completely eroded within one seasonal cycle. Only when applying TVD for both the vertical and horizontal advections the model succeeded to preserve haline stratification in the decadal simulation. Lower trophic level patterns are far better reproduced with the TVD scheme, and for the estimated cod larval survival, the advantages seem to be even stronger. Simulations using the TVD-derived prey fields identified distinct regions such as Dogger Bank to favor potential larvae survival (PLS), which did not appear as particularly favorable in the upstream simulations. The TVD scheme needs about 25 % more time on the central processing unit (CPU) in case of a pure hydrodynamic setup with only two scalar state variables (Barents Sea application). The additional CPU time cost increases for a coupled physical–biological model application with a large number of state variables. However, this is more than compensated by all the advantages found, and, hence, we conclude that it is worthwhile to use the TVD scheme in our ecosystem model.

  相似文献   

5.
Investigations on stratifying and de-stratifying processes in the Limfjord in Denmark, stretching from the North Sea at the western end to the Kattegat at the eastern end, were carried out. The forcing of the Limfjord is dominated by mean sea surface elevation and salinity gradients, diffuse freshwater supply, as well as episodic saline inflow events from the North Sea boundary. The physical regime of the Limfjord switches periodically from stratified to mixed conditions. In order to investigate the complexity of the system, a realistic three-dimensional high-resolution numerical model study was conducted for the year 2003. The results are based on, and compared to, available field data. A central subject of this study is the anomaly of potential energy as a measure for stratification. The stratifying and de-stratifying processes are identified as contributing terms in a dynamic equation for the potential energy anomaly. The comparison of model results and observations shows that the model has the capability of reproducing the observed physical regimes. Changes in the simulated stratification turn out to be a complex interaction of differential advection, heating and turbulent mixing in the central Limfjord.  相似文献   

6.
The influence of a summer storm event in 2007 on the North Sea and its effects on the ocean stratification are investigated using a regional coupled ocean (Regional Ocean Modeling System, ROMS)-atmosphere (Weather Research & Forecasting model, WRF) modeling system. An analysis of potential energy anomaly (PEA, Φ) and its temporal development reveals that the loss of stratification due to the storm event is dominated by vertical mixing in almost the entire North Sea. For specific regions, however, a considerable contribution of depth-mean straining is observed. Vertical mixing is highly correlated with wind induced surface stresses. However, peak mixing values are observed in combination with incoming flood currents. Depending on the phase between winds and tides, the loss of stratification differs strongly over the North Sea. To study the effects of interactive ocean-atmosphere exchange, a fully coupled simulation is compared with two uncoupled ones for the same vertical mixing parameters to identify the impact of spatial resolution as well as of SST feedback. While the resulting new mixed layer depth after the storm event in the uncoupled simulation with lower spatial and temporal resolution of the surface forcing data can still be located in the euphotic zone, the coupled simulation is capable to mix the entire water column and the vertical mixing in the uncoupled simulation with higher resolution of the surface forcing data is strongly amplified. These differences might have notable implications for ecosystem modeling since it could determine the development of new phytoplankton blooms after the storm and for sediment modeling in terms of sediment mobilization. An investigation of restratification after the extreme event illustrates the persistent effect of this summer storm.  相似文献   

7.
Results of microstructure measurements conducted in October–November of 2015 as a part of the Coupled Air Sea Processes and Electromagnetic Ducting Research (CASPER) project are discussed. The measurements were taken on the North Carolina shelf and across the Gulf Stream front. On the shelf, the oceanic stratification was influenced by highly variable surface salinity and along-bottom advection. Vertical mixing was mostly governed by variable winds. The vertical eddy diffusivity was estimated using the VMP-based dissipation measurements, and the diffusivity values obtained during calm periods and stormy winds were compared. Parameterization of the diffusivity for various mesoscale dynamical conditions is discussed in terms of shear instabilities and internal wave-generated turbulence based on data obtained in deep waters of the Gulf Stream and on the continental slope.  相似文献   

8.
A model system consisting of a three-dimensional circulation and transport model is used to simulate the dispersal of herring larvae in the North Sea. The driving forces of the circulation model are theM2-tide, time dependent wind stress and air pressure fields, as well as monthly climatological density fields interpolated on a daily basis. The transport model includes advection as well as diffusion and uses a tracer technique to pursue the larvae in the time and space domain. Furthermore, the transport model incorporates a simulation of active vertical movement of the larvae as vertical migration has a marked effect on the drift route of the larvae.Simulated North Sea currents are compared to observed currents gained during the Autumn Circulation Experiment (ACE) which took place from August 1987 to March 1988. The variability in observed currents at the location of the moorings is found to be larger than in the simulated currents. On a larger scale, the simulated circulation in the northern North Sea shows a close correspondence to the inferred circulation from a quasi-synoptic hydrographic survey. The quality of the predictions of larval transport and distribution patterns by the model system is tested using sequential larvae distributions observed during ACE. Common features and discrepancies of observed and simulated distributions are discussed and conclusions for further field investigations and modelling studies are drawn.  相似文献   

9.
The impact of the Black Sea Water (BSW) inflow on the circulation and the water mass characteristics of the North Aegean Sea is investigated using a high-resolution 3D numerical model. Four climatological numerical experiments are performed exploring the effects of the exchange amplitude at the Dardanelles Straits in terms of the mean annual volume exchanged and the amplitude of its seasonal cycle. Larger inflow of low salinity BSW influences the water characteristics of the whole basin. The largest salinity reduction is encountered in the upper layers of the water column, and the most affected region is the northeastern part of the basin. The winter insulation character of the BSW layer (low-salinity layer) is reduced by the seasonal cycle of the inflow (minimum during winter). The maximum atmospheric cooling coincides with the minimum BSW inflow rate, weakening the vertical density gradients close to the surface and thus facilitating the vertical mixing. The inflow rate of BSW into the North Aegean Sea constitutes an essential factor for the circulation in the basin. Increased inflow rate results into considerably higher kinetic energy, stronger circulation and reinforcement of the mesoscale circulation features. Although the position of the front between BSW and waters of Levantine origin does not vary significantly with the intensity of the BSW inflow rate, the flow along the front becomes stronger and more unstable as the inflow rate increases, forming meanders and rings. The changes in the intensity of BSW inflow rate overpower the wind and thermohaline forcing and largely determine the general circulation of the North Aegean Sea.  相似文献   

10.
A numerical modeling study of the influence of the lateral flow on the estuarine exchange flow was conducted in the north passage of the Changjiang estuary. The lateral flows show substantial variabilities within a flood-ebb tidal cycle. The strong lateral flow occurring during flood tide is caused primarily by the unique cross-shoal flow that induces a strong northward (looking upstream) barotropic force near the surface and advects saltier water toward the northern part of the channel, resulting in a southward baroclinic force caused by the lateral density gradient. Thus, a two-layer structure of lateral flows is produced during the flood tide. The lateral flows are vigorous near the flood slack and the magnitude can exceed that of the along-channel tidal flow during that period. The strong vertical shear of the lateral flows and the salinity gradient in lateral direction generate lateral tidal straining, which are out of phase with the along-channel tidal straining. Consequently, stratification is enhanced at the early stage of the ebb tide. In contrast, strong along-channel straining is apparent during the late ebb tide. The vertical mixing disrupts the vertical density gradient, thus suppressing stratification. The impact of lateral straining on stratification during spring tide is more pronounced than that of along-channel straining during late flood and early ebb tides. The momentum balance along the estuary suggests that lateral flow can augment the residual exchange flow. The advection of lateral flows brings low-energy water from the shoal to the deep channel during the flood tide, whereas the energetic water is moved to the shoal via lateral advection during the ebb tide. The impact of lateral flow on estuarine circulation of this multiple-channel estuary is different from single-channel estuary. A model simulation by blocking the cross-shoal flow shows that the magnitudes of lateral flows and tidal straining are reduced. Moreover, the reduced lateral tidal straining results in a decrease in vertical stratification from the late flood to early ebb tides during the spring tide. By contrast, the along-channel tidal straining becomes dominant. The model results illustrate the important dynamic linkage between lateral flows and estuarine dynamics in the Changjiang estuary.  相似文献   

11.
Only recently, medium intensity inflow events into the Baltic Sea have gained more awareness because of their potential to ventilate intermediate layers in the Southern Baltic Sea basins. With the present high-resolution model study of the Western Baltic Sea a first attempt is made to obtain model based realistic estimates of turbulent mixing in this area where dense bottom currents resulting from medium intensity inflow events are weakened by turbulent entrainment. The numerical model simulation which is carried out using the General Estuarine Transport Model (GETM) during nine months in 2003 and 2004 is first validated by means of three automatic stations at the Drogden and Darss Sills and in the Arkona Sea. In order to obtain good agreement between observations and model results, the 0.5×0.50.5×0.5 nautical mile bathymetry had to be adjusted in order to account for the fact that even at that scale many relevant topographic features are not resolved. Current velocity, salinity and turbulence observations during a medium intensity inflow event through the Øresund are then compared to the model results. Given the general problems of point to point comparisons between observations and model simulations, the agreement is fairly good with the characteristic features of the inflow event well represented by the model simulations. Two different bulk measures for mixing activity are then introduced, the vertically integrated decay of salinity variance, which is equal to the production of micro-scale salinity variance, and the vertically integrated turbulent salt flux, which is related to an increase of potential energy due to vertical mixing of stably stratified flow. Both measures give qualitatively similar results and identify the Drogden and Darss Sills as well as the Bornholm Channel as mixing hot spots. Further regions of strong mixing are the dense bottom current pathways from these sills into the Arkona Sea, areas around Kriegers Flak (a shoal in the western Arkona Sea) and north–west of the island of Rügen.  相似文献   

12.
We investigate the dynamics of suspended sediment transport in a hypertidal estuarine channel which displays a vertically sheared exchange flow. We apply a three-dimensional process-based model coupling hydrodynamics, turbulence and sediment transport to the Dee Estuary, in the north-west region of the UK. The numerical model is used to reproduce observations of suspended sediment and to assess physical processes responsible for the observed suspended sediment concentration patterns. The study period focuses on a calm period during which wave-current interactions can reasonably be neglected. Good agreement between model and observations has been obtained. A series of numerical experiments aim to isolate specific processes and confirm that the suspended sediment dynamics result primarily from advection of a longitudinal gradient in concentration during our study period, combined with resuspension and vertical exchange processes. Horizontal advection of sediment presents a strong semi-diurnal variability, while vertical exchange processes (including time-varying settling as a proxy for flocculation) exhibit a quarter-diurnal variability. Sediment input from the river is found to have very little importance, and spatial gradients in suspended concentration are generated by spatial heterogeneity in bed sediment characteristics and spatial variations in turbulence and bed shear stress.  相似文献   

13.
A three-dimensional shelf circulation model is used to examine the effect of seasonal changes in water-column stratification on the tidal circulation over the Scotian Shelf and Gulf of St. Lawrence. The model is driven by tidal forcing specified at the model’s lateral open boundaries in terms of tidal sea surface elevations and depth-averaged currents for five major tidal constituents (M2, N2, S2, K1, and O1). Three numerical experiments are conducted to determine the influence of baroclinic pressure gradients and changes in vertical mixing, both associated with stratification, on the seasonal variation of tidal circulation over the study region. The model is initialized with climatological hydrographic fields and integrated for 16 months in each experiment. Model results from the last 12 months are analyzed to determine the dominant semidiurnal and diurnal tidal components, M2 and K1. Model results suggest that the seasonal variation in the water-column stratification affects the M2 tidal circulation most strongly over the shelf break and over the deep waters off the Scotian Shelf (through the development of baroclinic pressure gradients) and along Northumberland Strait in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (through changes in vertical mixing and bottom stress). For the K1 constituent, the baroclinic pressure gradient and vertical mixing have opposing effects on the tidal circulation over several areas of the study region, while near the bottom, vertical mixing appears to play only a small role in the tidal circulation.  相似文献   

14.
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15.
We assess the performance of an eddy-recognizing numerical ocean model in simulating the pattern and variability of the hydrography in the Skagerrak/northern North Sea area. The model we use is a version of the widely used Princeton ocean model employing a terrain-following vertical coordinate. Results from a series of five multi-year simulations of the mesoscale response are described. The simulations differ in their representation of the lateral freshwater supply to the model ocean of which the first is a reference simulation. The next four are variations in which the river discharges and/or the Baltic outflow are given more realistic representations. For validation, we have used in situ hydrographic data. A novelty is that we use the concepts of freshwater height and potential energy anomaly as objective validation tools. We find that, in general, the model faithfully reproduces many of the observed hydrographic features including their mean patterns and their variance. Not surprisingly, we find that the Baltic outflow is by far the most significant freshwater source in terms of its influence on the hydrography in the area, a result corroborating earlier findings. The best validation is obtained when all freshwater supply is made as realistic as possible, in particular the Baltic outflow. We also find that the large scale cyclonic circulation and the location of fronts are robust characteristics of the Skagerrak/northern North Sea circulation given the impact changes in the freshwater input has on the hydrography. Finally, we find that a further exploration of the impact of the lateral open boundary forcing, e.g., the input of Atlantic water, is needed.  相似文献   

16.
The Adriatic Sea general circulation model coupled to a third generation wave model SWAN and a sediment transport model was implemented in the Adriatic Sea to study the dynamics of the sediment transport and resuspension in the northern Adriatic Sea (NAS) during the Bora event in January 2001. The bottom boundary layer (BBL) was resolved by the coupled model with high vertical resolution, and the mechanism of the wave–current interaction in the BBL was also represented in the model. The study found that, during the Bora event of 13–17 January 2001, large waves with significant wave height 2 m and period of 5 s were generated by strong winds in the northwestern shelf of the Adriatic where the direction of wave propagation was orthogonal to the current. The combined motion of the wave and current in the BBL increased the bottom stress over the western Adriatic shelf, resulting in stronger sediment resuspension there. Combining stronger bottom resuspension and strong upward vertical flux of resuspended sediments due to turbulent mixing, the model predicted that sediment concentration near the Po River was much higher than that predicted by the model run without wave forcing. The study also shows that wave–current interaction in the BBL reduced the western Adriatic Coastal Currents (WACCs) in the shallower north. It is concluded that wave forcing significantly changed the sediment distributions and increased the total horizontal fluxes over the western shelf. These results signified wave effect on sediment flux and distribution in the NAS, and suggested that waves cannot be neglected in the study of dynamics of sediment transport and resuspension in the shallow coastal seas. By including the tidal forcing in the coupled model, we also examined the effect of tides on the sediment transport dynamics in the NAS.  相似文献   

17.
Observational and modeling studies were conducted to investigate the Pearl River plume and its interaction with the southwesterly driven upwelling circulation in the northern South China Sea during the summer. After exiting the Pearl River Estuary, the discharged freshwater generates a nearly stationary bulge of freshwater near the entrance of the estuary. Forced by the wind-driven coastal upwelling current, the freshwater in the outer part of the bulge flows downstream at the speed of the current and forms a widening and deepening buoyant plume over the shelf. The plume axis gradually shifts offshore of the current maximum as a result of currents induced by the contrasting density at the nose of plume and by the intensified Ekman drift in the plume. In this plume–current system, the fraction of the discharged freshwater volume accumulated in the bulge reaches a steady state and the volume of newly discharged freshwater is transported downstream by the upwelling current. Enhancement of stratification by the plume thins the surface frictional layer and enhances the cross-shelf circulation in the upper water column such that the surface Ekman current and compensating flow beneath the plume are amplified while the shoaling of the deeper dense water in the upwelling region changes minimally. The pressure gradient generated between the buoyant plume and ambient seawater accelerates the wind-driven current along the inshore edge of the plume but retards it along the offshore edge. Along the plume, downward momentum advection is strong near the highly nonlinear source region and a weaker upward momentum advection occurs in the far field over the shelf. Typically, the plume is shaped by the current over the shelf while the current itself is adjusting to a new dynamic balance invoked by the plume-induced changes of vertical viscosity and the horizontal pressure gradient. The spatial variation of this new balance leads to a coherent change in the cross-isobath transport in the upper water column during upwelling.  相似文献   

18.
The impact of sea level rise (SLR) on the future morphological development of the Wadden Sea (North Sea) is investigated by means of extensive process-resolving numerical simulations. A new sediment and morphodynamic module was implemented in the well-established 3D circulation model GETM. A number of different validations are presented, ranging from an idealized 1D channel over a semi-idealized 2D Wadden Sea basin to a fully coupled realistic 40-year hindcast without morphological amplification of the Sylt-Rømøbight, a semi-enclosed subsystem of the Wadden Sea. Based on the results of the hindcast, four distinct future scenarios covering the period 2010–2100 are simulated. While these scenarios differ in the strength of SLR and wind forcing, they also account for an expected increase of tidal range over the coming century. The results of the future projections indicate a transition from a tidal-flat-dominated system toward a lagoon-like system, in which large fractions of the Sylt-Rømøbight will remain permanently covered by water. This has potentially dramatic implications for the unique ecosystem of the Wadden Sea. Although the simulations also predict an increased accumulation of sediment in the back-barrier basin, this accumulation is far too weak to compensate for the rise in mean sea level.  相似文献   

19.
Thermal and optical remote sensing data were used to investigate the spatial and temporal distribution of sea surface temperature (SST) and of suspended particulate matter (SPM) in the southern North Sea. Monthly SST composites showed pronounced seasonal warming of the southern North Sea and delineated the English coastal and continental coastal waters. The East-Anglia Plume is the dominant feature of the English coastal waters in the winter and autumn SPM composites, and the Rhine region of freshwater influence (ROFI), including the Flemish Banks, is the dominant feature of the continental waters. These mesoscale spatial structures are also influenced by the evolution of fronts, such as the seasonal front separating well-mixed water in the southern Bight, from the seasonally stratified central North Sea waters. A harmonic analysis of the SST and SPM images showed pronounced seasonal variability, as well as spring-neap variations in the level of tidal mixing in the East Anglia Plume, the Rhine ROFI and central North Sea. The harmonic analysis indicates the important role played by the local meteorology and tides in governing the SST and near-surface SPM concentrations in the southern North Sea. In the summer, thermal stratification affects the visibility of SPM to satellite sensors in the waters to the north of the Flamborough and Frisian Fronts. Haline stratification plays an important role in the visibility of SPM in the Rhine ROFI throughout the year. When stratified, both regions typically exhibit low surface SPM values. A numerical model study, together with the harmonic analysis, highlights the importance of tides and waves in controlling the stratification in the southern North Sea and hence the visibility of SPM.  相似文献   

20.
We investigate mixing processes under stratified conditions on the Northwest European Continental shelf using a numerical model (POLCOMS). Our results indicate that convection induced by vertical shearing of horizontal density gradients (‘shear-induced convection’) is a regularly occurring feature in the bottom and surface boundary layers in this open shelf-sea situation. Two types of turbulence models are investigated to study their capability for reproducing the observed location of tidal mixing fronts, and the physical processes occurring in seasonally stratified waters. The first model is a one-equation variant of the Mellor–Yamada model, whereas the second model combines a more recent second-momentum closure with a two-equation model. It is found that generally mean frontal positions (as estimated from ICES data) are predicted more accurately by the two-equation model. The one-equation model reproduces the mean frontal locations to 18.1 km (<3 grid spacings) and the two-equation model to 17.1 km; although in the Celtic Sea the accuracy is ∼33 and ∼12 km, respectively. Comparison with historical tide gauges, current metres, CTD stations, and thermistor chain data from the North Sea Project all show an improvement in accuracy when the two-equation model is used. This is particularly apparent in the model's ability to reproduce the spring–neap variability during stratification. We find that in the presence of shear-induced convection the routinely applied clipping of the turbulent length-scale, previously thought to be a minor ingredient in a turbulence model, has a dramatic effect on the results: if the length-scale clipping is not applied, substantial over-mixing is observed to occur. The causes and possible remedies of this effect are investigated. Overall our results demonstrate a sensitivity to the details of the turbulence model that is significantly greater than previously thought.  相似文献   

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