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1.
Influence of Eurasian snow on Indian summer monsoon in NCEP CFSv2 freerun   总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2  
The latest version of the state-of-the-art global land–atmosphere–ocean coupled climate forecast system of NCEP has shown considerable improvement in various aspects of the Indian summer monsoon. However, climatological mean dry bias over the Indian sub-continent is further increased as compared to the previous version. Here we have attempted to link this dry bias with climatological mean bias in the Eurasian winter/spring snow, which is one of the important predictors of the Indian summer monsoon rainfall (ISMR). Simulation of interannual variability of the Eurasian snow and its teleconnection with the ISMR are quite reasonable in the model. Using composite analysis it is shown that a positive snow anomaly, which is comparable to the systematic bias in the model, results into significant decrease in the summer monsoon rainfall over the central India and part of the Equatorial Indian Ocean. Decrease in the summer monsoon rainfall is also found to be linked with weaker northward propagation of intraseasonal oscillation (ISO). A barotropic stationary wave triggered by positive snow anomaly over west Eurasia weakens the upper level monsoon circulation, which in turn reduces the zonal wind shear and hence, weakens the northward propagation of summer monsoon ISOs. A sensitivity experiment by reducing snow fall over Eurasian region causes decrease in winter and spring snow depth, which in turn leads to decrease in Indian summer monsoon rainfall. Results from the sensitivity experiment corroborate with those of composite analysis based on long free run. This study suggests that further improvements in the snow parametrization schemes as well as Arctic sea ice are needed to reduce the Eurasian snow bias during winter/spring, which may reduce the dry bias over Indian sub-continent and hence predictability aspect of the model.  相似文献   

2.
Several observational and modeling studies indicate that the Indian summer monsoon rainfall (ISMR) is inversely related to the Eurasian snow extent and depth. The other two important surface boundary conditions which influence the ISMR are the Pacific sea surface temperature (SST) to a large extent and the Indian Ocean SST to some extent. In the present study, observed Soviet snow depth data and Indian rainfall data for the period 1951–1994 have been statistically analyzed and results show that 57% of heavy snow events and 24% of light snow events over west Eurasia are followed by deficient and excess ISMR respectively. Out of all the extreme monsoon years, care has been taken to identify those when Eurasian snow was the most dominant surface forcing to influence ISMR. During the years of high(low) Eurasian snow amounts in spring/winter followed by deficient(excess) ISMR, atmospheric fields such as temperature, wind, geopotential height, velocity potential and stream function based on NCEP/NCAR reanalyses have been examined in detail to study the influence of Eurasian snow on the midlatitude circulation regime and hence on the monsoon circulation. Results show that because of the west Eurasian snow anomalies, the midlatitude circulations in winter through spring show significant changes in the upper and lower level wind, geopotential height, velocity potential and stream function fields. Such changes in the large-scale circulation pattern may be interpreted as precursors to weak/strong monsoon circulation and deficient/excess ISMR. The upper level velocity potential difference fields between the high and low snow years indicate that with the advent of spring, the winter anomalous convergence over the Indian region gradually becomes weaker and gives way to anomalous divergence that persists through the summer monsoon season. Also the upper level anomalous divergence centre shifts from over the Northern Hemisphere and equator to the Southern Hemisphere over the Indian Ocean and Australia.  相似文献   

3.
Summary Observational data are used to explore the relationship between surface air temperature anomaly gradients and Indian summer monsoon rainfall (ISMR). The meridional temperature anomaly gradient across Eurasia during January directed towards equator (pole) is a very good precursor of subsequent excess (deficient) Indian summer monsoon rainfall (ISMR). This gradient directed towards equator (pole) indicates below (above) normal blocking activity over Eurasia, which leads to less (more) than normal southward penetration of dry and cold mid latitude westerlies over the Indian monsoon region, which ultimately strengthens (weakens) the normal monsoon circulation. These findings suggest a mechanism for the weakening of relationship between El Niño and ISMR.Though there is a strong fundamental association between El Niño (warm ENSO) and deficient Indian summer monsoon rainfall (ISMR), this relationship was weak during the period 1921–1940 and the recent decade (1991–1998). During the El Niño years of 1921–1940 and 1901–1998, the meridional temperature anomaly gradient across Eurasia (Eurasian forcing) during January was directed towards equator. On the other hand, during the El Niño years of 1901–1920 and 1941–1990 this gradient was directed towards pole. Thus during 1921–1940 and 1991–1998, the adverse impact of El Niño on Indian monsoon was reduced by the favorable Eurasian forcing resulting in the weak association between El Niño and ISMR. This finding disagrees with the hypothesis of winter warming over the Eurasian continent as the reason for the observed weakening of this relationship during recent decade.  相似文献   

4.
This study reveals the complex nature of the connection between Eurasian snow and the following summer season＇s monsoon rainfall by using four different indicators of snow conditions and correlating each of them to summer monsoon rainfall. Using 46 years of historical records of mean winter snow depth, maximum snow depth, and snow starting dates, and 27 years of snow area coverage from remote sensing observations over Eurasia, the authors found diverse correlation patterns between snow conditions and the following warm season＇s rainfall over South and Southeast Asia. Some of the results contradict the well-known inverse relationships between snow and the summer monsoon. This study provides an easy comparison of results in that it shows the connections between Eurasian snow and monsoon rainfall by using different Eurasian snow indicators based on the best available historical records without discrimination of regional variations in snow conditions.  相似文献   

5.
The present study is aimed at revisiting the possible influence of the winter/spring Eurasian snow cover on the subsequent Indian summer precipitation using several statistical tools including a maximum covariance analysis. The snow–monsoon relationship is explored using both satellite observations of snow cover and in situ measurements of snow depth, but also a subset of global coupled ocean–atmosphere simulations from the phase 3 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP3) database. In keeping with former studies, the observations suggest a link between an east–west snow dipole over Eurasia and the Indian summer monsoon precipitation. However, our results indicate that this relationship is neither statistically significant nor stationary over the last 40 years. Moreover, the strongest signal appears over eastern Eurasia and is not consistent with the Blanford hypothesis whereby more snow should lead to a weaker monsoon. The twentieth century CMIP3 simulations provide longer timeseries to look for robust snow–monsoon relationships. The maximum covariance analysis indicates that some models do show an apparent influence of the Eurasian snow cover on the Indian summer monsoon precipitation, but the patterns are not the same as in the observations. Moreover, the apparent snow–monsoon relationship generally denotes a too strong El Niño-Southern Oscillation teleconnection with both winter snow cover and summer monsoon rainfall rather than a direct influence of the Eurasian snow cover on the Indian monsoon.  相似文献   

6.
北半球雪盖的气候特征及与印度季风降水的关系   总被引：4，自引：0，他引：4  
杨向东  蒋尚城 《气象》2001,27(12):8-12
利用卫星观测的1966年11月－2000年12月北半球雪盖资料，研究了北半球、欧亚、北美和青藏高原雪盖的气候学特征及其变化趋势。通过对雪盖与印度季风的分析，得出：（1）欧亚冬季（12月－翌年3月）雪盖面积与印度季风降水（6－9月）呈反相关，并指出印度季风降水不仅受欧亚雪盖的影响，可能与暖水年有一定的联系。（2）青藏高原10、11月雪盖面积与次年印度季风爆发及降水关系较好，并提出可能的影响机制。  相似文献   

7.
Summary In this study the relationship between mid-tropospheric geopotential heights over the Northern Hemisphere (20° N to 90° N, around the globe) and Indian summer monsoon rainfall (ISMR: June to September total rainfall) have been examined. For this purpose, the monthly 500 hPa geopotential heights in a 2.5° lat./lon. grid over the Northern Hemisphere and the ISMR data for the period 1958 to 2003 have been used.The analysis demonstrates a dipole structure in the correlation pattern over the East Pacific Ocean in the month of January which intensifies in February and weakens in March.The average 500 hPa geopotential height over the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean during February (index one), has a significant positive relationship (r = 0.72) with the ISMR. In addition, the surface air temperature (SAT) anomaly over North-west Eurasia during January (index two) is found to be strongly related with the subsequent summer monsoon rainfall. These relationships are found to be consistent and robust during the period of analysis and these indices are found to be independent of each other.Hence, using index one and index two, a multiple linear regression model is developed for the prediction of the ISMR and the empirical relationships are verified on independent data. The forecast of the ISMR, using the above model, is found to be satisfactory.The dipole structure in the correlation pattern over the East Pacific region during February weakens once the ENSO (El-Nino and Southern Oscillation) events are excluded from the analysis. This suggests that the dipole type relationship between mid-tropospheric geopotential heights over the East Pacific Ocean and the ISMR may be a manifestation of the ENSO cycle.  相似文献   

8.
The Northwest Pacific (NWP) circulation (subtropical high) is an important component of the East Asian summer monsoon system. During summer (June–August), anomalous lower tropospheric anticyclonic (cyclonic) circulation appears over NWP in some years, which is an indicative of stronger (weaker) than normal subtropical high. The anomalous NWP cyclonic (anticyclonic) circulation years are associated with negative (positive) precipitation anomalies over most of Indian summer monsoon rainfall (ISMR) region. This indicates concurrent relationship between NWP circulation and convection over the ISMR region. Dry wind advection from subtropical land regions and moisture divergence over the southern peninsular India during the NWP cyclonic circulation years are mainly responsible for the negative rainfall anomalies over the ISMR region. In contrast, during anticyclonic years, warm north Indian Ocean and moisture divergence over the head Bay of Bengal-Gangetic Plain region support moisture instability and convergence in the southern flank of ridge region, which favors positive rainfall over most of the ISMR region. The interaction between NWP circulation (anticyclonic or cyclonic) and ISMR and their predictability during these anomalous years are examined in the present study. Seven coupled ocean–atmosphere general circulation models from the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Climate Center and their multimodel ensemble mean skills in predicting the seasonal rainfall and circulation anomalies over the ISMR region and NWP for the period 1982–2004 are assessed. Analysis reveals that three (two) out of seven models are unable to predict negative (positive) precipitation anomalies over the Indian subcontinent during the NWP cyclonic (anticyclonic) circulation years at 1-month lead (model is initialized on 1 May). The limited westward extension of the NWP circulation and misrepresentation of SST anomalies over the north Indian Ocean are found to be the main reasons for the poor skill (of some models) in rainfall prediction over the Indian subcontinent. This study demonstrates the importance of the NWP circulation variability in predicting summer monsoon precipitation over South Asia. Considering the predictability of the NWP circulation, the current study provides an insight into the predictability of ISMR. Long lead prediction of the ISMR associated with anomalous NWP circulation is also discussed.  相似文献   

9.
Anomalous heavy snow during winter or spring has long been regarded as a possible precursor of deficient Indian monsoon rainfall during the subsequent summer. However previous work in this field is inconclusive, in terms of the mechanism that communicates snow anomalies to the monsoon summer, and even the region from which snow has the most impact. In this study we explore these issues in coupled and atmosphere-only versions of the Hadley Centre model. A 1050-year control integration of the HadCM3 coupled model, which well represents the seasonal cycle of snow cover over the Eurasian continent, is analysed and shows evidence for weakened monsoons being preceded by strong snow forcing (in the absence of ENSO) over either the Himalaya/Tibetan Plateau or north/west Eurasia regions. However, empirical orthogonal function (EOF) analysis of springtime interannual variability in snow depth shows the leading mode to have opposite signs between these two regions, suggesting that competing mechanisms may be possible. To determine the dominant region, ensemble integrations are carried out using HadAM3, the atmospheric component of HadCM3, and a variety of anomalous snow forcing initial conditions obtained from the control integration of the coupled model. Forcings are applied during spring in separate experiments over the Himalaya/Tibetan Plateau and north/west Eurasia regions, in conjunction with climatological SSTs in order to avoid the direct effects of ENSO. With the aid of idealized forcing conditions in sensitivity tests, we demonstrate that forcing from the Himalaya region is dominant in this model via a Blanford-type mechanism involving reduced surface sensible heat and longwave fluxes, reduced heating of the troposphere over the Tibetan Plateau and consequently a reduced meridional tropospheric temperature gradient which weakens the monsoon during early summer. Snow albedo is shown to be key to the mechanism, explaining around 50% of the perturbation in sensible heating over the Tibetan Plateau, and accounting for the majority of cooling through the troposphere.  相似文献   

10.
Simulation of Indian summer monsoon circulation and rainfall using RegCM3   总被引：5，自引：2，他引：5  
Summary The Regional Climate Model RegCM3 has been used to examine its suitability in simulating the Indian summer monsoon circulation features and associated rainfall. The model is integrated at 55 km horizontal resolution over a South Asia domain for the period April–September of the years 1993 to 1996. The characteristics of wind at 850 hPa and 200 hPa, temperature at 500 hPa, surface pressure and rainfall simulated by the model over the Indian region are examined for two convective schemes (a Kuo-type and a mass flux scheme). The monsoon circulation features simulated by RegCM3 are compared with those of the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis and the simulated rainfall is validated against observations from the Global Precipitation Climatology Centre (GPCC) and the India Meteorological Department (IMD). Validation of the wind and temperature fields shows that the use of the Grell convection scheme yields results close to the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis. Similarly, the Indian Summer Monsoon Rainfall (ISMR) simulated by the model with the Grell convection scheme is close to the corresponding observed values. In order to test the model response to land surface changes such as the Tibetan snow depth, a sensitivity study has also been conducted. For such sensitivity experiment, NIMBUS-7 SMMR snow depth data in spring are used as initial conditions in the RegCM3. Preliminary results indicate that RegCM3 is very much sensitive to Tibetan snow. The model simulated Indian summer monsoon circulation becomes weaker and the associated rainfall is reduced by about 30% with the introduction of 10 cm of snow over the Tibetan region in the month of April.  相似文献   

11.
青藏高原冬春积雪和地表热源影响亚洲夏季风的研究进展   总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2  
青藏高原冬春积雪和地表热源的气候效应是青藏高原气候动力学的两个重要内容。大量资料分析和数值试验研究均表明这两个因子对亚洲季风有一定的预测意义,本文对此做了比较系统的回顾和总结,并进一步比较了青藏高原积雪和地表热源影响东亚和南亚夏季降水的异同。结果表明,东亚夏季降水在年际和年代际尺度上均存在"三极型"和"南北反相"型的空间分布特征,高原春季地表热源在年代际和年际尺度上主要影响东亚夏季降水"三极型"模态;在年代际尺度上它是中国东部出现"南涝北旱"格局的重要原因,而高原冬季积雪的作用相反。另一方面,高原冬季积雪在年际和年代际尺度上对印度夏季风降水的预测效果均要优于高原地表热源。无论是空间分布还是时间演变特征,高原冬季积雪与春季地表热源整体上均无统计意义上的显著联系。不断完善高原地面观测网和改进模式在高原地区的模拟性能,将是进一步深入理解高原积雪和地表热源影响亚洲季风物理过程和机制的关键所在。  相似文献   

12.
The weakening relationship of El Nino with Indian summer monsoon reported in recent years is a major issue to be addressed. The altered relationships of Indian monsoon with various parameters excite to search for other dominant modes of variability that can influence the precipitation pattern. Since the Indian summer monsoon circulation originates in the oceanic region of the southern hemisphere, the present study investigates the association of southern extratropical influence on Indian summer monsoon using rainfall and reanalysis parameters. The effect of Southern Annular Mode (SAM) index during the month of June associated with the onset phase of Indian summer monsoon and that during July–August linked with the active phase of the monsoon were analysed separately for a period from 1951 to 2008. The extra-tropical influence over the monsoon is illustrated by using rainfall, specific humidity, vertical velocity, circulation and moisture transport. The June high SAM index enhances the lower level wind flow during the onset phase of monsoon over Indian sub-continent. The area of significant positive correlation between precipitation and SAM in June also shows enhancement in both ascending motion and specific humidity during the strong phase of June SAM. On the other hand, the June high SAM index adversely affects July–August monsoon over Indian subcontinent. The lower level wind flow weakens due to the high SAM. Enhancement of divergence and reduction in moisture transport results in the Indian monsoon region due to the activity of this high southern annular mode. The effect is more pronounced over the southwest region where the precipitation spell has high activity during the period. Significant correlation exists between SAM and ISMR, even after removing the effect of El Nino. It indicates that the signals of Indian summer monsoon characteristics can be envisaged to a certain extend using the June SAM index.  相似文献   

13.
利用ERA-40再分析资料、CRU TS3.0数据集以及中国站点观测数据,分析了欧亚大陆夏季地表热力异常的变化特征,在此基础上探讨了我国东部夏季降水与同期欧亚大陆地表热力异常之间的可能联系。研究发现,欧亚大陆地表气温与浅层土壤温度的大尺度变化特征基本一致:经验正交函数分解第一模态空间型表现为大陆西南部分区域与欧亚大陆其他区域反相变化,对应的时间系数均在20世纪80年代末出现转折。当夏季欧亚中纬度印度以北地区和我国中东部地区地表气温偏高时,东亚夏季风的强度偏强,西太平洋副热带高压位置偏东,我国东部偏南风偏强,江淮流域水汽偏少,且气流上升运动偏弱,降水偏少;华南和北方地区水汽偏多,且气流上升运动偏强,降水偏多;反之亦然。当欧亚大陆中高纬贝加尔湖以东及以西地区夏季地表气温偏高,而我国东北部地区夏季地表气温偏低时,东亚夏季风的强度偏强,西太平洋副热带高压位置偏西,我国东南部地区偏南风异常偏强,有利于水汽向江淮流域输送,东南沿海及内蒙古中部水汽偏少,且气流上升运动偏弱,降水偏少;而东部其余地区水汽偏多,且气流上升运动偏强,降水偏多;反之亦然。  相似文献   

14.
Summary The influence of the Indian Ocean Zonal Mode on the extreme summer monsoon rainfall over East Asia (China, Korea, Japan) has been investigated applying simple statistical techniques of correlation and composite analysis. While the observed rainfall data are used as a measure of rainfall activity, the NCEP-NCAR Reanalysis data are used to examine the circulation features associated with the extreme monsoon phases and the dynamics of the zonal mode – monsoon variability connections. The data used covers the period 1960 to 2000.The equatorial Indian Ocean is dominated by westerly winds blowing towards Indonesia. However, during the positive phase of the zonal mode, an anomalous, intensified easterly flow prevails, consistent with the positive (negative) sea surface temperature anomalies over the western (southeastern) equatorial Indian Ocean. This positive phase of the zonal mode enhances summer monsoon activity over China, but suppresses the monsoon activity over the Korea-Japan sector, 3 to 4 seasons later. The relationship is more consistent and stronger over the Korea-Japan region than over China.The Indian Ocean influences the monsoon variability over East Asia via the northern hemisphere mid-latitudes or via the eastern Indian Ocean/west Pacific route. The monsoon-desert mechanism induces strong subsidence northwest of India due to the anomalous convection over the Indian Ocean region associated with the positive phase of the zonal mode. This induces a zonal wave pattern over the mid-latitudes of Asia propagating eastwards and displacing the north Pacific subtropical high over East Asia. The warming over the eastern Indian Ocean/west Pacific inhibits the westward extension of the north Pacific sub-tropical high. The location and shape of this high plays a dominant role in the monsoon variability over East Asia. The memory for delayed impact, three to four seasons later, could be carried by the surface boundary conditions of Eurasian snow cover via the northern channel or the equatorial SSTs near the Indonesian Through Flow via the southern channel.  相似文献   

15.
范广洲  罗四维 《高原气象》1997,16(2):140-142
利用一个耦合了简化的简单生物圈模式的大气环流谱模式（ＳＳｉＢ－ＧＣＭ），初步探讨了青藏高原冬季积雪异常对东、南亚夏季季风环流和降水的影响及其机理。结果表明，高原地区积雪增加将使随后地夏季东、南来季风明显减弱，主要表现为东、南亚季风区降水减少，索马里急流、印度季风的印度西南气流弱弱。另外，还提出欧亚大陆雪盖与整个高原雪盖和高原东部雪盖对东、南亚夏季风影响的敏感问题。与欧亚大陆雪盖相比，高原雪盖是影响  相似文献   

16.
青藏高原积雪与亚洲季风环流年代际变化的关系   总被引：12，自引：1，他引：12  
利用高原测站的月平均雪深资料和NCEP／NCAR再分析资料，分析了20世纪70年代末以来，青藏高原积雪的显著增多与亚洲季风环流转变的联系。研究表明，高原南侧冬春季西风的增强及西风扰动的活跃是造成青藏高原冬春积雪显著增多的主要原因，高原积雪的增多与亚洲夏季风的减弱均是亚洲季风环流转变的结果；20世纪70年代末以来，夏季华东降水的增多、华南降水的减少及华北的干旱化与青藏高原冬春积雪增多及东亚夏季风的减弱是基本同步的，高原冬春积雪与华东夏季降水的正相关、与华北及华南夏季降水的负相关主要是建立在年代际时间尺度上，因此，高原积雪与我国夏季降水关系的研究应以亚洲季风环流的年代际变化为背景。  相似文献   

17.
东亚夏季风次季节（10~90 d）变化是中国夏季持续性强降水、高温热浪等高影响天气事件的重要环流载体,处于天气预报上限和气候季节预测下限之间的预报过渡区。研究表明:东亚夏季风次季节变化是东亚夏季风的固有物理特征,它和季节进程之间的时间锁相关系是东亚夏季风次季节变化潜在可预报性的重要来源。东亚夏季风次季节变化与Madden-Julian振荡（MJO）存在显著差异,试图通过MJO来预测东亚夏季风次季节变化的不确定性较大。东亚夏季风次季节预测的另一重要来源是下垫面外强迫,包括欧亚大陆春季积雪、中国东部春季土壤湿度和厄尔尼诺-南方涛动（ENSO）事件。此外,去趋势偏-交叉相关分析统计方法能够分析东亚夏季风多因子和多时间尺度问题。目前,亟需解决的科学问题包括:东亚夏季风次季节模态的客观定量描述、造成东亚夏季风次季节模态年际变化的关键物理过程、不同外强迫因子对东亚夏季风次季节模态的共同影响。  相似文献   

18.
Weakening of Indian summer monsoon rainfall in warming environment   总被引：1，自引：1，他引：0  
Though over a century long period (1871–2010) the Indian summer monsoon rainfall (ISMR) series is stable, it does depict the decreasing tendency during the last three decades of the 20th century. Around mid-1970s, there was a major climate shift over the globe. The average all-India surface air temperature also shows consistent rise after 1975. This unequivocal warming may have some impact on the weakening of ISMR. The reduction in seasonal rainfall is mainly contributed by the deficit rainfall over core monsoon zone which happens to be the major contributor to seasonal rainfall amount. During the period 1976–2004, the deficit (excess) monsoons have become more (less) frequent. The monsoon circulation is observed to be weakened. The mid-tropospheric gradient responsible for the maintenance of monsoon circulation has been observed to be weakened significantly as compared to 1901–1975. The warming over western equatorial Indian Ocean as well as equatorial Pacific is more pronounced after mid-70s and the co-occurrence of positive Indian Ocean Dipole Mode events and El Nino events might have reinforced the large deficit anomalies of Indian summer monsoon rainfall during 1976–2004. All these factors may contribute to the weakening of ISMR.  相似文献   

19.
中国与印度夏季风降水的比较研究   总被引：37，自引：0，他引：37  
本文用1951—1980年中国和印度的降水资料研究了两个地区在西南季风时期(6—9月)总雨量变化的关系。发现印度的雨量变化与中国各地雨量的相关关系有正、有负,最明显的是印度中西部与我国华北地区有较高的正相关。进一步对两个地区降水存在遥相关的原因进行了分析,发现南亚次大陆低压是联系两个季风区雨量变化的重要环节。中国季风雨量与印度季风雨量的相关趋势,主要决定于中国各地雨量与东亚夏季风强度的关系。   相似文献   

20.
With the twentieth century analysis data (1901–2002) for atmospheric circulation, precipitation, Palmer drought severity index, and sea surface temperature (SST), we show that the Asian-Pacific Oscillation (APO) during boreal summer is a major mode of the earth climate variation linking to global atmospheric circulation and hydroclimate anomalies, especially the Northern Hemisphere (NH) summer land monsoon. Associated with a positive APO phase are the warm troposphere over the Eurasian land and the relatively cool troposphere over the North Pacific, the North Atlantic, and the Indian Ocean. Such an amplified land–ocean thermal contrast between the Eurasian land and its adjacent oceans signifies a stronger than normal NH summer monsoon, with the strengthened southerly or southwesterly monsoon prevailing over tropical Africa, South Asia, and East Asia. A positive APO implies an enhanced summer monsoon rainfall over all major NH land monsoon regions: West Africa, South Asia, East Asia, and Mexico. Thus, APO is a sensible measure of the NH land monsoon rainfall intensity. Meanwhile, reduced precipitation appears over the arid and semiarid regions of northern Africa, the Middle East, and West Asia, manifesting the monsoon-desert coupling. On the other hand, surrounded by the cool troposphere over the North Pacific and North Atlantic, the extratropical North America has weakened low-level continental low and upper-level ridge, hence a deficient summer rainfall. Corresponding to a high APO index, the African and South Asian monsoon regions are wet and cool, the East Asian monsoon region is wet and hot, and the extratropical North America is dry and hot. Wet and dry climates correspond to wet and dry soil conditions, respectively. The APO is also associated with significant variations of SST in the entire Pacific and the extratropical North Atlantic during boreal summer, which resembles the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation in SST. Of note is that the Pacific SST anomalies are not present throughout the year, rather, mainly occur in late spring, peak at late summer, and are nearly absent during boreal winter. The season-dependent APO–SST relationship and the origin of the APO remain elusive.  相似文献   

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