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1.
Dudley et al. [9] commented on our paper [11], arguing that the current IUCN objective-based categorization of protected areas, which is also used in marine protected areas (MPAs), should not be abandoned and replaced by the new regulation-based classification system [11]. Here we clarify that we do not advocate replacing the current IUCN categories, but highlight the benefits of using both the objective-based IUCN categories and the new regulation-based classification when applied to MPAs. With an increasing number of MPA types being implemented, most of them multiple-use areas zoned for various purposes, assessing ecological and socioeconomic benefits is key for advancing conservation targets and policy objectives. Although the IUCN categories can be used both in terrestrial and marine systems, they were not designed to follow a gradient of impacts and there is often a mismatch between stated objectives and implemented regulations. The new regulation-based classification system addresses these problems by linking impacts of activities in marine systems with MPA and zone classes in a simple and globally applicable way. Applying both the IUCN categories and the regulation-based classes will increase transparency when assessing marine conservation goals.  相似文献   

2.
This paper examines the establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs) in remote small island settings with specific reference to the Portuguese island of Corvo in the Azores. This case study represents different approaches to marine conservation, ranging from an informal community-based no-take MPA to a government-driven multi-purpose natural park, involving diverse local and external actors interacting over an extended period of time. In-depth interviews were used to explore the perceptions of local and expert stakeholders about positive and negative aspects of MPA establishment. This demonstrated how differing approaches have led to varying degrees of MPA effectiveness. From the community-based MPA, several key ingredients for effective MPA establishment were identified, including engaging and empowering local communities, clear definition of goals, visible MPA outputs and community enforcement based on high levels of support and peer group pressure. However, in a context of complex marine resource use, the limitations of community-based initiatives prevent them from achieving broad ecosystem conservation goals. These might be better achieved through government-driven MPAs, provided that they are integrated in a wider regional marine strategy and that there is political will to effectively implement conservation measures and to allocate resources for management, enforcement and monitoring.  相似文献   

3.
Regional efforts have increased the number and amount of marine protected areas (MPAs) in the Caribbean, yet few studies have examined how these MPAs are progressing toward their goals and objectives. Using social and ecological data from a rapid assessment of 31 MPAs and their associated human communities in the wider Caribbean, this study investigates (1) the stated social and ecological objectives of MPAs; (2) the extent to which MPAs are making progress toward their stated social and ecological objectives; and (3) tradeoffs in progress toward social and ecological objectives. Findings indicate that Caribbean MPAs have multiple objectives related to both social and ecological conditions, and that most MPAs are making at least some progress towards achieving these objectives. Those MPAs with stated objectives to promote education and serve as a model for other MPAs seem to be making good progress on these objectives, while those with the objective of reducing conflict are not. Where MPAs are not meeting their goals and objectives, planners and managers should consider reallocating human and financial resources to address deficiencies and re-evaluating existing goals and objectives. It is important to consider how existing marine protected areas are performing as efforts in the Caribbean region and elsewhere continue to promote the establishment of new MPAs.  相似文献   

4.
Conflict surrounding commercial fisheries is a common phenomenon when diverse stakeholders are involved. Harvesting reef fish for the global ornamental fish trade has provoked conflict since the late 1970s in the State of Hawaii. Two decades later the state of Hawaii established a network of marine protected areas (MPAs) on the west coast of the island of Hawaii (“West Hawaii”) to protect and enhance the fish resources and alleviate conflict between stakeholders, principally between commercial dive tour operators and aquarium fishers. The perceptions held by these stakeholders on West Hawaii and Maui were evaluated to understand how MPAs influenced conflict dimensions, as the former location had a well-established MPA network designed to alleviate conflict, while the latter did not. This was accomplished by analyzing the following questions: (1) perceptions about the effectiveness of MPAs to alleviate conflict and enhance reef fish; (2) perceived group encounters and threats to coral reefs; (3) willingness to encourage fishing; and (4) value orientations toward the aquarium fish trade. The results indicate the MPAs in West Hawaii were moderately effective for alleviating conflict, encounters between stakeholders occurred on both islands, dive operators strongly opposed commercial fishing and perceived aquarium fishing as a serious threat to the coral reef ecosystem, and polarized value orientations toward the aquarium fish trade confirms pervasive social values conflict. The conflict between these groups was also asymmetrical. MPAs are inadequate for resolving long term conflict between groups who hold highly dissimilar value orientations toward the use of marine resources. Future marine spatial planning and MPA setting processes should include stakeholder value and conflict assessments to avoid and manage tensions between competing user groups.  相似文献   

5.
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are a cost-efficient and management-effective tool. Fishery Resource Conservation Zones (FRCZs) are one type of MPA in Taiwan, and they were designated to ensure the sustainability of fishery resources since 1976; however, government appropriations are the only financing source for FRCZs, leading to manpower and equipment shortages for FRCZ management. This study selected the Touching and Suao FRCZs in Yilan County of Taiwan as cases studies. To assess the feasibility of establishing a sustainable financing mechanism for MPAs, the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) was applied to examine respondents׳ willingness to pay (WTP) to setup a fund for FRCZ management. The empirical results indicated that approximately 90% of respondents would be willing to donate funding for MPAs, and the WTP per respondent is NT$586.51 (US$19.6). Thus, establishing an MPA fund is a feasible way to operate Taiwanese MPAs through a co-management framework involving the central government, local government, local communities and stakeholders. However, based on our empirical results, a co-management financing mechanism for MPAs should be established to ensure stable and diverse financing sources.  相似文献   

6.
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are aimed at managing and protecting marine environments. Their design, however, often disregards both a thorough knowledge of the distribution of habitats and assemblages and the use of proper experimental evaluations of the efficacy of MPAs by comparing protected vs. unprotected zones. About 200 MPAs have been recently instituted in the Mediterranean area, but the evidence of their efficacy is scant. The MPA of Torre Guaceto (Southern Adriatic Sea, Italy) is one of the rare cases of effective protection enforcement. The reserve was instituted more than 10 years ago, a period currently considered as sufficient to show responses by organisms to protection. The MPA is divided into a C zone, the general reserve, where many activities are permitted, a B zone, the partial reserve where restrictions increase and two A zones, the integral reserve where access is prohibited. The goals of the paper were to map the distribution of benthic assemblages to assess if they were properly represented in the differently protected zones, and to test the efficacy of protection by quantifying possible differences between the assemblages in two control areas and in the two A zones, where human impact is completely excluded. The analysis of habitat and assemblage distribution within the MPA showed that the zones with total protection do not include most valuable environmental types. Most of the considered variables (i.e. cover of substratum, number of taxa, and average abundance of the most common taxa) were not significantly different in and out of the A zones, at each time of sampling. Results, however, suggested a possible effect of protection in modifying patterns of abundance of sponges under Cystoseira canopy (more abundant in the fully protected zone). In the subtidal habitat, differences were found in the structure of the whole assemblage and in the abundance of encrusting coralline red algae (more abundant outside the fully protected area). Notwithstanding the correct general methodology employed in the study, a lack of statistical power could have a role in preventing the detection of ecologically relevant effects of protection. In some instances, data pooling allowed a discrimination between cases where there was clearly no effect of protection and cases where there might be. On this basis, the optimization of this experimental design should be considered in further studies. In any case, if the goals of MPAs have not been clearly stated, efficacy of protection might prove very difficult to test even with the use of sound experimental designs.  相似文献   

7.
In the North-east Atlantic Ocean there are 550 inshore and offshore MPAs established to accomplish a high diversity of objectives, which can be classified into 24 different types of MPA designations. Only 153 of these MPAs have a management plan (MgP) --the basic tool required for an effective management. Amongst these, only 66 are actually managed, i.e. they have the staff and resources required to operate the plan. A common characteristic of these MPAs is the lack of standardized indicators of their performance. In order to address this issue, an alternative approach was developed based on the assessment of management performance using the expert knowledge and perceptions of managers operating MPAs, a universal source of information that could allow overcoming the usual gaps due to the restrictions in coverage of scientific monitoring and assessments. MgPs showed differences among countries but were homogeneous within each country, reflecting the usual top-down approach in the establishment of MPAs. Compliance with the qualitative objectives present in MgPs was higher than compliance with quantitative ones (87% versus 50%), and the MPAs that most successfully achieved their objectives were those with regular monitoring. This analysis also shows that beyond these objectives, the establishment of an MPA and the activities developed as a consequence of its creation have a positive socio-economic impact on the local human community.  相似文献   

8.
A blind faith in the ability of MPAs to counteract loss of biodiversity is fraught with risk, especially when MPAs are poorly planned and when the consequences of establishing MPAs are not adequately thought out. MPA shortcomings are categorized as one of five main types: (1) MPAs that by virtue of their small size or poor design are ecologically insufficient; (2) inappropriately planned or managed MPAs; (3) MPAs that fail due to the degradation of the unprotected surrounding ecosystems; (4) MPAs that do more harm than good due to displacement and unintended consequences of management; and (5) MPAs that create a dangerous illusion of protection when in fact no protection is occurring. A strategic alternative, which fully utilizes the strengths of the MPA tool while avoiding the pitfalls, can overcome these shortcomings: integrating marine protected area planning in broader marine spatial planning and ocean zoning efforts.  相似文献   

9.
California recently established a state-wide MPA network that extends over 1900 km of coastline and includes 124 MPAs totaling nearly 2200 km². Designing and implementing such an MPA network in a populous democratic state with a large number of ocean users required a balance of top-down and bottom-up governance strategies. A legal mandate for MPAs identified the goals for the network and stipulated that scientific knowledge should form the basis of MPA design, while political necessity led to a participatory stakeholder-driven MPA design process. At the time of publication, the oldest region of the network was just five years old, so it remains to be seen how the governance strategies employed in MPA planning will evolve to meet the challenges of long-term MPA management.  相似文献   

10.
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11.
This paper reviews the research to date that relates to the economics of marine protected areas (MPAs). A special effort is made to examine the evidence on the benefits and costs of MPAs in terms of consumptive and nonconsumptive marine resource interests. General observations are made regarding the net effects of MPAs on these two stakeholder categories and the potential institutional costs of MPA implementation are highlighted. In general, the review finds that the empirical research on the economics of MPAs is limited and that there are several issues that might merit further investigation. The researchable topics are suggested as a way to better understand the socioeconomic impacts of MPAs and the potential response of stakeholders to proposed protected areas.  相似文献   

12.
In order to enable effective management of marine protected areas (MPAs), desired MPA achievements need to be identified as early as possible for the development of relevant and clear management goals, objectives and conservation targets. As the definition of MPA success is a social construct, the involvement of multiple groups in this process including government agencies, stakeholders, and other interested parties is increasingly advocated. This study investigates diverse groups’ opinions on the performance of a proposed National Marine Conservation Area (NMCA) on the West coast of Canada prior to its establishment. In order to analyse and quantify the importance of MPA performance criteria among multiple stakeholder groups, the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) is applied. Findings reveal that marine stakeholder groups have distinct preferences for future MPA performance. Most differences are obvious between user and non-user groups. The study also finds that respondents’ characteristics other than stakeholder groups affiliations influence expectations towards the proposed MPA including livelihood dependency on the marine environment, amount of time spent in the area, and engagement in fishing activities.  相似文献   

13.
With over 30 years’ experience of managing Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), China has established more than 250 MPAs in its coastal and marine areas, but the overall management effectiveness is unimpressive [46]. Recently, China has made commitments to expand the MPA coverage in its waters ([7,52,53]) and develop an “ecological barrier” along the coast by connecting MPAs and islands by 2020 (The State Council 2015). In this context, this study reviews major challenges in current MPA practices in China, including the lack of systematic and scientific approaches, inadequate laws and regulations, ineffective governance mechanisms, conflicts between conservation and exploitation, limited funding, and inadequate monitoring programs. Four scenarios for developing China's MPA networks are developed and analyzed based on a literature review of experience in the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the European Union and the Philippines, as well as a set of interviews with Chinese MPA experts. These scenarios include: 1) creating a national system with an inventory of MPAs, 2) developing social networks, 3) developing regional ecological networks, and 4) developing a national representative network. The first two scenarios focus on the enhancement of the governance system through connecting individual MPAs as a social, institutional, and learning network, which could provide opportunities for creating an ecologically coherent network, while the latter two emphasized ecological connectivity and representativeness. Given different focuses, they can be applied at different stages of implementation and combinations of scenarios can be used depending on China's needs.  相似文献   

14.
Q methodology provides a novel, quantitative approach to reveal stakeholder perspectives and was used to assess social acceptance of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) with fisheries and conservation management goals using the Devon & Severn region, UK as a case study site. Participants sorted a set of statements (n=42) into a forced-choice frequency distribution and centroid analysis revealed three factors for interpretation: (1) ‘pro-conservation’, characterised by views that conservation should be prioritised over commercial and economic interests; (2) ‘pro-fisheries’ who saw fishing as the priority and expressed concerns over the uncertainty of management measures and the number of planned MPAs; and (3) ‘win–win’ who felt that the current approach to marine management using MPAs would allow both fisheries and conservation goals to be met. Despite some differences in opinion, social acceptability of MPAs was identified across all three discourses, but was limited by the knock-on effects of the exclusion of stakeholders from the implementation of MPAs and the development of management measures. This resulted in disenfranchisement and uncertainty over the future of their activities. The results suggest that social acceptability of MPAs is generated by effective and ongoing stakeholder engagement, transparency and honesty relating to the costs and benefits of designations and a certainty that once sites are in place the resources exist for their effective management. Understanding social acceptability will guide adaptive management and increase the chances of MPA success and the meeting of global targets.  相似文献   

15.
According to the United Nations (UN) Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, there has been a dramatic decline in global biodiversity. The UN has made a global appeal for all countries to mitigate their impact on the environment. Marine environmental protection is one of the most critical and urgent issues in the world and many countries have commenced establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) by implementing ecosystem-based management (EBM) concepts. MPA planning has been considered one of the simplest and most effective methods to protect marine environments. Taiwan has recently developed policies that have focused on its marine environment, and there are plans to increase the size of Taiwan׳s MPAs to 20% of its total ocean territory by 2020, thereby achieving a sustainable ocean. To achieve this goal, the government must address specific difficulties associated with the location of MPAs and relevant zoning strategies. This study establishes MPA protection principles and a zoning framework for MPAs in Taiwan by using Gueishan Island in Yilan County as a case study site to examine specific zoning strategies. The protection of 3 objectives (hydrothermal vents, cetacean, and fisheries resources) is discussed in this paper. Multi-criteria spatial analysis and a geographic information system are applied to identify the most crucial area to protect. To understand the stakeholders׳ opinions and concerns regarding the proposed zoning framework, this research conducted in-depth interviews with experts and stakeholders. MPAs zoning strategies are formulated at the conclusion of this study that could assist in protecting critical marine resources and avoiding conflicts among various usages of the marine area.  相似文献   

16.
This study examined the level of management complexity (simultaneously occurring licensed human activities) within the currently designated Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in Scottish waters and through modelling and statistical analysis determined which variables play an important role in defining the level of management effort required for each MPA. This study utilised surveyed distribution data for Priority Marine Features and modelled distribution data showing potential “Most Suitable” Priority Marine Feature habitat through the species distribution model, Maxent. Prediction indicators were developed through Spearman׳s Rank coefficients and a linear regression model. Results showed that, (1) there was a significant negative correlation between the management complexity score within 5 km of a MPA and the number of casework events (defined as any work or statutory consultation associated with an MPA, such as planning applications, discharges or new fisheries); and (2) a significant positive correlation between the number of casework events and location, number of features, and the type of features and most suitable scores. Calculations showed that Lochs Duich, Long and Alsh, Loch Sunart, Loch Sween and Loch Creran may potentially require most effort to manage once they are designated as MPAs. This study showed that it is possible to evaluate options within an MPA network to achieve cost effective options for the biodiversity and socio-economic objectives of MPA networks and that some MPAs are likely to be more efficient than others in terms of management time.  相似文献   

17.
The management implications of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) cover the interactions and two-way effects between the ecosystem and local residents. Hence, support or resistance from stakeholders is critical to management effectiveness. The inclusion of the perspectives of stakeholders into the MPAs of sustainable utilization can reduce opposition and conflict, improving the effectiveness of MPA management through the input of local residents. This study used interviews, questionnaire surveys, and the Analytic Hierarchy Process to obtain the opinions of different groups regarding the choices and preferences of stakeholders in the assessed factors of the sustainable utilization of MPAs in Green Island, Taiwan. The results showed that the stakeholder groups have a consensus on the “completeness of ecosystems,” “processing of wastes and pollutants,” and “integrated management.” These results provide insight into the varying perspectives held by individual groups, accelerating the integration of different opinions in order to facilitate appropriate solutions and smooth negotiations.  相似文献   

18.
Drawing on some recent developments in so-called “interactive governance theory”, it is argued that fisheries and coastal governance is basically a relationship between two systems, which could be termed a “governing system” and a “system-to-be-governed.” The former system is social: it is made up of institutions and steering mechanisms. The latter system is partly natural, partly social: it consists of an ecosystem and the resources that it harbors, as well as a system of users and stakeholders who form political coalitions and institutions among themselves. Obviously, we need to be concerned with the relationship and interaction between the governing system and the system-to-be-governed, which forms a system in its own right. According to governance theory, these systems share similar structural attributes: they are diverse, complex, dynamic and vulnerable. In order for governance to work they must somehow be compatible, in order to be mutually responsive. This is not a matter of natural mechanism but of institutional design by societal actors such as legislative bodies, planning agencies and civic organizations—alone, or in concert. What conditions, mechanisms and institutions are conducive to creating a better rapport between the governing system and the system-to-be-governed? Before we can start this discussion, we need to rethink our basic assumptions of what governance is, what governors do, and what we can expect from governance. How do we get from where we are now to where we want to be? In order to accomplish this we need something other than an instrumental, rational model. We need “a technology of foolishness” that emphasizes institutional experimentation and learning by doing.  相似文献   

19.
《Ocean & Coastal Management》2006,49(5-6):342-354
Marine protected areas (MPAs) have become a common conservation and management tool for reducing exploitation from the commercial and recreational fisheries sectors. However, the recreational fisheries sector has the potential to be compatible with no-take MPAs when catch-and-release angling is practiced because, in theory, no fish are actually harvested. This presumes that the effects of catch-and-release angling and related activities do not cause appreciable declines in fish populations as a result of direct mortality, sub-lethal effects, or indirect effects on fish habitats, or other problems contrary to the goal of a given MPA. Here, we explore the idea that recreational catch-and-release angling may be compatible with some no-take MPAs provided there are no substantive negative ecological consequences. We argue that it is not currently possible to answer definitively the question of whether recreational catch-and-release fisheries can be compatible with no-take MPAs. Mortality rates of released fish vary extensively (between zero and near 100%) and are influenced by a number of factors including environmental conditions, fishing gear, angler behavior, and species-specific characteristics. Nevertheless, research in the field of catch-and-release is beginning to show that certain handling techniques can significantly reduce post-release mortality in fish. With appropriate regulation and angler education, catch-and-release could help enhance conservation and management goals associated with MPAs while maintaining public support and providing alternative tourism-based revenues for displaced fishers. Until sufficient data are available, research should focus on contrasting the fish community characteristics in regions with no fishing and those that permit catch-and-release fishing (i.e., opportunistic observations and controlled manipulations) as well as population-level mathematical modeling to assess the effects of angling on long-term population viability and ecosystem dynamics. Additional efforts should focus on education and outreach that provide anglers and fishing guides with the best available information to reduce catch-and-release mortality, sublethal angling-induced impairments, and broader effects on aquatic environments.  相似文献   

20.
Addressing social and economic considerations is crucial to the success of Marine Protected Area (MPA) planning and management. Ineffective social assessment can alienate local communities and undermine the success of existing and future MPAs. It is rare to critique the success of methods used currently to incorporate social and economic considerations into MPA planning. Three Australian MPA planning processes covering three states and incorporating federal and state jurisdictions are reviewed in order to determine how potential social impacts were assessed and considered. These case studies indicate that Social Impact Assessment (SIA) is under-developed in Australian MPA planning. Assessments rely heavily on public participation and economic modelling as surrogates for dedicated SIA and are followed commonly by attitudinal surveys to gauge public opinion on the MPA after its establishment. The emergence of issues around public perception of the value of MPAs indicates the failure of some of these proposals to adequately consider social factors in planning and management. This perception may have potential implications for the long term success of individual MPAs. It may also compromise Australia's ability to meet international commitments for MPA targets to gazette at least 10% of all its marine habitats as MPAs. Indeed, this is demonstrated in two of the three case studies where social and economic arguments against MPAs have been used to delay or block the future expansion of the MPA network.  相似文献   

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