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1.
Lalibela is a medieval settlement in Northern Ethiopia famous for its 11 beautifully carved rock hewn churches, registered as World Heritage Site in 1978. The rock hewn churches are grouped into three based on their proximity: the Bete Medhane Alem (Church of the Holy Saviour), Bete Gabriel–Rufael (Church of St. Gabriel–Rafael) and Bete Giorgis (Church of St. George) groups. The churches are carved out of a single, massive scoriaceous basalt hill which was deposited along an East–West extending palaeovalley in the Oligo-Miocene Trap basalt of the northwestern Ethiopian plateau.The Rock Mass Rating (RMR) classification scheme was used to classify the rock mass (assuming each church as a separate rock mass) based on their uniaxial compressive strength and the spacing and conditions of discontinuities. Though most of the churches are hewn from medium to high strength rock mass, discontinuities make them vulnerable to other deteriorating agents mainly weathering, and water infiltration. Most of the rock hewn churches are affected by pre-carving cooling joints and bedding plane discontinuities, and by mostly but not necessarily post-carving tectonic and seismic induced cracks and fractures. Material loss due to deep weathering triggered by rain water infiltration and uncontrolled groundwater seepage affects most of the churches, particularly the Bete Merqorios (Church of St. Mark) and Bete Aba Libanos (Church of Father Libanos) churches. The scoriaceous basalt which is porous and permeable allows easy passage of water while the underlying basalt is impermeable, increasing the residence time of water in the porous material, causing deep weathering and subsequent loss of material in some of the churches and adjoining courtyards.  相似文献   

2.
Ala?at? tuff has been used extensively as a source of building stone for outdoor and indoor decorations since the historical times in and around the tourist town of Ala?at? (western Turkey). The use of the Alacati tuff in buildings has been made compulsory by the Ala?at? municipality, for preserving the historical appearance of the buildings, after 2005 in Ala?at?. It has been noticed that, evident deteriorations developed in tuff surfaces of the stone buildings and garden walls within 5?C6?years of their emplacement. Durability properties of the Ala?at? tuff are evaluated by determining the mineralogical, chemical, and physico-mechanical properties of the fresh tuff samples obtained from the only operative quarry in the area. Ageing tests such as Na2SO4 and MgSO4 salt crystallization, freezing?Cthawing, and wetting?Cdrying were conducted on the fresh tuff samples to assess their durability. Additionally, the durability of the tuff is also evaluated by determining its average pore diameter, saturation coefficient, wet-to-dry strength ratio, static rock and slake-durability indices. Fresh Ala?at? tuff has high porosity and low unit weight and strengths and are classified to be very poor to moderately durable stone based on the test results of different durability assessment methods. Mineralogical and geochemical analyses have also been carried out on the deteriorated tuff samples collected from the surfaces of the stone buildings to determine the effect of weathering on tuff and the test results have been compared with those of the fresh tuff samples. There is no major difference observed between the mineralogy and chemistry of the fresh and weathered tuff samples thus, it has been concluded that physical weathering has been dominant in the area in deterioration of tuff.  相似文献   

3.
The physical properties of the stone meteorites provide important clues to understanding the formation and physical evolution of material in the Solar protoplanetary disk as well providing indications of the properties of their asteroidal parent bodies. Knowledge of these properties is essential for modeling a number of Solar System processes, such as bolides in planetary atmospheres, the thermal inertia of atmosphereless solid body surfaces, and the internal physical and thermal evolution of asteroids and rock-rich icy bodies. In addition, insight into the physical properties of the asteroids is important for the design of robotic and crewed reconnaissance, lander, and sample return spacecraft missions to the asteroids. One key property is meteorite porosity, which ranges from 0% to more than 40%, similar to the range of porosities seen in asteroids. Porosity affects many of the other physical properties including thermal conductivity, speed of sound, deformation under stress, strength, and response to impact. As a result of the porosity, the properties of most stone meteorites differ significantly from those of compact terrestrial rocks, whose physical properties have been used in many models of asteroid behavior. A few physical properties, such as grain density, magnetic susceptibility, and heat capacity are not functions of porosity. Taken together, the grain density and the magnetic susceptibility can be used to classify unweathered or minimally weathered ordinary chondrites. This provides a rapid screening technique to identify heterogeneous samples, classify new samples, and identify misclassified meteorites or interlopers in strewn fields.  相似文献   

4.
宝顶山石窟岩体风化破坏的作用因素分析   总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2  
宝顶山石窟石雕风化破坏日趋严重，这是石刻区普遍存在的问题。本文在现场工作及试验研究的基础上，从岩体内部作用因素和外部环境因素两方面，详尽论证岩体风化破坏的形成原因，作为石刻区制定防风化措施的依据。  相似文献   

5.
Brixworth church in Northamptonshire has been aptly described as a museum of rock–types. An archaeological assignment involving the identification of every stone in one of the oldest of our English churches has led to some surprising discoveries – about how the church was built, and the lengthy journeys undertaken by the Saxons in their search for stone.  相似文献   

6.
The charm of the Isle of Wight, so much appreciated by visitors and the local population alike, is very much a combination of its delightful scenery and unique assemblage of vernacular buildings. These buildings range from isolated farmhouses to elaborate manor houses, castles and churches all constructed using the indigenous stone resources of the island. Today, these stone buildings, many of which date back to medieval times, are increasingly in need of conservation repair to maintain them for future generations. Essential to such conservation work is the safeguarding of the island's indigenous building stone sources as many of the stones used are unique to the island and no longer quarried. Protecting these stone sources could also provide stone for new building projects which would help to further enhance the character of the island's towns and villages.  相似文献   

7.
The process of giving an antique look, a worn and “old” appearance, to natural stone surfaces, which can be observed by abrasion in natural ways through a long time, is called artificial aging. Natural stone processing facilities that involve mass production usually prefer vibration aging machines. This study examines the utilization of various rock aggregates and abrasive residuals instead of synthetic abrasives used in aging machines. Natural stone samples with different properties were aged in a vibration aging machine using andesite, granite, sandstone, pebble stone, abrasive stone residuals, and ceramic abrasives. At the end of the study, the aging performance of different rocks was determined; granite was found to be the most effective. Rock aggregates were ranked in terms of their abrasiveness (aging) performance, from the most effective to the least effective as: granite, ceramic abrasive, sandstone, andesite, pebble stone, and abrasive stone residuals. It was observed that rock aggregates can be used in the aging process instead of synthetic ceramic abrasives, with desired performance.  相似文献   

8.
Microstructural and textural investigations by scanning (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) techniques have been performed on samples taken across two quartzo-feldspathic mylonite zones from the Redbank Deformed Zone, Central Australia. One has been deformed at greenschist-facies (GS), the second at amphibolite-facies (Am), conditions. With increasing strain the rock type changes from protomylonite to mylonite to ultramylonite. The protomylonites and mylonites consist of alternating quartz and polymineralic quartz-feldspar bands. At the highest strains a homogeneous, fine-grained polymineralic ultramylonite occurs. Shear-zone geometry and microscale structures indicate that these ultramylonites experienced higher strains and were weaker than the encapsulating protomylonites and mylonites. TEM and SEM studies of the ultramylonites reveal a rectangular to square grain shape, a continuous alignment of grain and interphase boundaries across several grain diameters, a grain size (GS 0.5 μm; Am 5–11 μm) less than the equilibrium subgrain size, and open and void-containing grain and interphase boundaries. Analysis of local textures by electron back-scatter diffraction (EBSD) in the SEM showed a very weak crystallographic preferred orientation (CPO) for the quartz. The grain misorientation relationships are not consistent, with dislocation creep being the dominant deformation mechanism. All structures are of the type expected if grain-boundary sliding processes had contributed significantly to the deformation. Consequently, the deformation of such quartzo-feldspathic rocks, and by implication the rheology of the Redbank Deformed Zone, must have been controlled by the mechanical properties of these fine-grained polymineralic ultramylonites, deforming by grain-boundary sliding processes. This is in contrast to the pure quartz bands which deformed by dislocation-creep mechanisms and were less important in the rheology of the Redbank Deformed Zone.  相似文献   

9.
A Merchantek LUV266 TM petrographic ultraviolet (UV) laser microprobe has been used in conjunction with a Finnigan MAT ELEMENT TM high resolution ICP double-focusing mass spectrometer (HR-ICP-MS) for solid microsampling and geochemical analysis. This new configuration for laser ablation has the advantage of coupling the high sensitivity and fast scanning technology applied in the ELEMENT with the ablation efficiency of a UV laser. Optimisation of the configuration on the synthetic NIST SRM 612 glass standard reference material using Q-switched UV laser energy of 2 mJ and a 5 Hz repetition rate demonstrates: (1) a linear element response factor throughout the mass spectrum, suggesting limited fractionation during laser ablation; (2) a high sensitivity and very low background noise for most elements of interest; (3) limits of detection ranging from 3 ng g-1 for Sc to 300 pg g-1 for U; (4) a flat topped peak shape suitable for precise isotopic measurements; and (5) a flat bottomed crater geometry which permits progressive ablation for the analysis of thin sections. Average precision and accuracy estimates based on replicate analyses of synthetic NIST standard reference material and USGS BCR-2G glasses are below 10% for most elements.  相似文献   

10.
Oxidation of galena (PbS) to oxysulfates, (PbO·PbSO4, 3PbO·PbSO4 and 4PbO·PbSO4), has been observed using Raman spectroscopy. Peaks associated with the oxidation products have been assigned. The reaction appears to be a high temperature oxidation induced by the high laser (25 mW at 514.5 nm) power density at freshly cleaved galena surfaces. Damage to the galena surface was observed visually under the microscope. Moderate laser powers (5 mW at 514.5 nm) did not result in any damage. No Raman bands were observed or expected for freshly cleaved galena because it has the rock salt structure. Laser-induced production of these oxysulfates is dramatically different from high temperature methods previously employed. This procedure will permit easy identification of galena in complex mineral ore samples. Spontaneous air oxidation of freshly cleaved galena to oxides or polysulfides was not detected.  相似文献   

11.
Salt crystallization is the most significant factor in the degradation of the natural stones used in cultural and historical structures. Stones decay partially or fully as a result of this exposure. This study is the investigation of the degradation of historical monuments (underground cities and semi-underground settlements) carved in pyroclastic rocks in Cappadocian Region which takes part in World Cultural Heritage List. Samples of pyroclastic rocks were collected from six different quarries in Cappadocia, Turkey. To understand the contribution of salt crystallization to this weathering, dry weight loss (DWL) tests were performed on these samples. To investigate the correlations between salt crystallization and other rock properties, porosity, water absorption, ultrasonic velocity, uniaxial compressive strength, Brazilian tensile strength, and point load index were also measured. During the SC process of weathering, the results showed that porosity and water absorption increased for all the samples whereas ultrasonic velocity, uniaxial compressive strength, tensile strength, and point load index values decreased. Evaluation of the data obtained from these tests showed very high logarithmic correlations between the dry weight loss values and the mechanical properties.  相似文献   

12.
In the present work, the relationship between intrinsic factors, mechanical properties and durability of Miocene sandstones used in the architectural heritage of Tunisia, specifically in the Roman aqueduct of Oued Miliane and Uthina site, are studied. The petrographic study and the characterisation of porous network have been carried out using optical microscopy, mercury intrusion porosimetry and laser scanner confocal microscopy (LSCM). The hygric behaviour has also been determined from water absorption under vacuum, drying, capillary water absorption and water vapour permeability. The mechanical properties have been assessed from compressive strength and abrasion tests. Rock durability has been evaluated from salt crystallization (sodium sulphate) accelerated aging tests. The results show good hygric behaviour characterised by a high evaporation rate and almost no retention of water; due to the macroporous character of the rock and the good connectivity of the pore network. Because of the poor lithification, the stone has a very low mechanical strength which makes it very vulnerable to the salt crystallization effects. The absence of chemically unstable minerals preserves the rock from chemical alteration. The durability of the building stone is mainly conditioned by salt loading of the monument.  相似文献   

13.
The Early Christian Munazio Ireneo cubicle in Cagliari (Sardinia) is carved into the rock and is one of the rare monuments of Sardinia belonging to Early Christian Age. It is 166 cm under the planking level and is a semi-confined chamber in which a gate allows exchange with the outside. In 1888, when it was discovered, it was completely painted, but over the years, it suffered a serious damage and all the paintings are nearly disappeared. Now the site shows a high moisture and a differential damage characterised by delamination, powdering, salt crystallisation and biological colonisation. The research offers a multidisciplinary approach to study the salt crystallisation damage, which is a phenomenon still not completely understood today. Studies and analyses highlight that different kinds of damage can be recognised. The cement mortar and the air pollution cause crystallisation of the sulphates. Constant capillary rising and the presence of water infiltration due to the rains, which travelled into the site from the vault, were detected during qualitative inspection. Although the microclimate did not change much in the site and the humidity was almost constant during the monitoring period, the variations in temperature allowed the phase transitions of sodium sulphate, especially in summer. The greatest damage of the porous stone is associated with the phase transitions and crystallisation inside the stone of sodium sulphate, one of the most harmful salts for porous materials because of its high crystallisation pressure.  相似文献   

14.
采用X射线粉末衍射（XRD）、扫描电子显微镜（SEM）、热重分析（TG-DTG）及激光诱导离解光谱（LIBS）等分析方法对一种红色砭石的矿物学特征进行了深入的研究。XRD分析表明,红色砭石主要由白云石组成,并含有少量石英和方解石及微量云母、正长石和赤铁矿。SEM结果显示,砭石中的矿物颗粒大多为集合体,粒径大多集中在1～5μm之间,表面光滑程度有所不同。红色砭石在650-850℃范围内出现一个单失重峰,为白云石的分解形成,类质同象或者杂质矿物的存在导致白云石两阶段的分解同步完成。红色砭石的颜色可能与赤铁矿和正长石微晶在砭石中的均匀分布有关。  相似文献   

15.
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16.
 The aim of this paper was to study the weathering mechanism of marbles and granites exposed to the marine environment at the Delos archaeological site. Alterations, as granular disintegration, contour scaling and alveolus formations, can be observed either at the base of blocks and columns, or at the median-high zones of monuments. A white marble, which originated from Naxos Island, had a weak porosity (0.2%). Its porous network was organized into two subnetworks of rectilinear and sinuous cracks, which limited capillary transfer to ∼10 cm. The granite, which originated from Delos Island, had a relatively high porosity (2.15%), and had a well-connected system of cracks and microporous zones of weathered minerals. This homogeneous network allowed good capillary transfer for long distances (1–2 m). For the marble, as for the granite, evaporation occurred mainly at depth in the stone, and encouraged its deterioration. This damage depends on the dissolution and crystallization of salts, which occur in cycles. First, by the capillary transfer of water and salt from the ground, when the stones are located near the sea. This processes can explain the deterioration of the marble and the granite bases, and the decay of granite on all its surfaces. Second, by fixation of water vapor by sea salt deposited on the stone by wind. This phenomenon can explain the degradations observed on the median-high parts of monuments in marble and granite, even though, for the granite, the first mechanism was more active.  相似文献   

17.
泥岩的物理力学特性在很大程度上取决于土体内部微观孔隙结构特征及其变化规律,进而影响其工程特性,为探讨压实作用对高速铁路微膨胀性泥岩微观孔隙的影响,制备6种不同干密度的重塑泥岩试样,采用冷冻干燥机对饱和后的试样进行干燥,进而通过压汞试验对不同压实状态下的重塑泥岩微孔隙形状、孔隙体积、孔隙面积进行分析研究。结果表明,重塑泥岩中除了存在圆柱形孔外,还含有大量瓶颈孔;参照shear提出的孔隙划分方法对孔径不同的孔隙进行了分类,发现重塑泥岩中的孔隙多分布于颗粒间及团粒内,压实作用在微观上表现为对大孔隙的压缩引起的大孔隙向小孔隙的转化;压实度不同的泥岩孔隙总面积几近相同且孔隙面积多存在于颗粒内,压实作用越大,团粒内孔隙面积越小;对压汞法实测孔隙率小于理论计算孔隙率这一现象进行了合理的分析及说明,应用线性回归分析了实测孔隙率与计算孔隙率的关系;确定了通过压汞法测定泥岩微孔隙结构的科学性及合理性。研究成果可为膨胀泥岩地区高速铁路修建提供参考依据,对同类工程建设具有借鉴意义。  相似文献   

18.
Karst aquifers can have a complex flow as a result of the formation of large conduits from dissolution features. As a result, a three-dimensional finite-difference groundwater flow model (equivalent porous media) may not apply as the dual porosity nature of karst features and the effects of turbulent flow cannot be directly simulated. Statistical analysis of karst hydrographs of the Trifilia aquifer in Greece showed the existence of a slightly karstified mass with high primary porosity that regulates the flow. An equivalent porous media model was developed to simulate the Trifilia karst aquifer using MODFLOW. Steady state and transient state calibration gave encouraging results for the equivalent porous media approach, which does not consider pipe flow or turbulence. Detailed hydrogeological research conducted in the area helped define the aquifer hydraulic conductivity zones and extent; and flux to/from the aquifer. Only hydraulic conductivity and specific yield were adjusted during calibration, as the flux to/from the system was considered known and applied as boundary conditions. Small mean absolute and RMS piezometric head error of the model under both steady and transient state conditions were achieved.  相似文献   

19.
建立了4组不同孔隙分布形式的多孔材料模型,在考虑孔隙分布范围和密度的基础上计算其孔隙分布分形维数,并利用假三维数值试验的方法获得了相同初始强度、不同孔隙度和孔隙分布形式试样的抗压强度。数值试验结果表明,除了孔隙度较小和孔隙分布分维数较大的试样破坏形式基本满足45° 破裂角的规律以外,该分维数较小的试样均呈现出不对称的斜截面破坏;在孔隙度相同的情况下,该分维数越大,样品的抗压强度越高;通过推导假三维情况下材料孔隙度与抗压强度的理论关系发现,该分维数越大,样组的抗压强度随孔隙度增大而衰减的速率越慢;根据损伤力学模型对试样的抗压强度进行预测分析发现,当样组的该分维数较大时,该模型能够较准确地预测多孔材料的抗压强度,而当样组的该分维数逐渐减小时,损伤力学模型的精度也逐渐降低。上述规律是由孔隙分布分维数越小、孔隙分布越不均匀、试样中应力集中的累积效应越显著的原因而造成的。  相似文献   

20.
砂岩是地质遗迹和石质文物最为常见的岩石类型,冻融循环导致的风化劣化是引起其发生地质灾害的主要原因。降渗加固是解决该问题的根本途径。文章引入国际上新型的岩土体加固技术—微生物诱导碳酸钙沉淀（MICP）,以中粒砂岩和微粒砂岩为例,通过开展MICP处理和冻融循环试验,研究其改善不同孔隙砂岩抗冻融特性的可行性,分析其改善机理。研究结果表明：（1）MICP作用能显著提高两类砂岩的抗冻融特性,主要改善机理是MICP过程生成的碳酸钙不仅填充了岩石孔隙,减小了孔隙水的体积和冻融损伤作用力,同时也加强了岩石颗粒之间的胶结强度,但孔隙因素对该过程有一定影响;（2）3轮次MICP处理后的岩样在冻融循环40次后未见明显表观破坏,而未经处理的岩样当冻融循环达到40轮次时在棱角处出现局部表观破坏且中粒砂岩破坏程度略大于微粒砂岩;（3）40轮次冻融循环作用后,中粒砂岩和微粒砂岩岩样孔隙率增加率从17.0%和14.8%降低到了4.4%和6.3%,质量损失率从0.22%和0.14%下降到了0.04%和0.02%,吸水率从6.8%和4.4%减小到了0.75%和1.5%,波速降低率从18.5%和12.4%降低到了7.3%和3.8%;（4）由于中粒砂岩孔隙大于微粒砂岩,其碳酸钙沉淀效率更高,有效处理深度更深,表层孔隙间距更大,从而在进行相同轮次MICP处理时,其孔隙率降低率、吸水率降低率、质量增长率、波速增长率均较大。  相似文献   

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