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1.
Bin Pei Weichiang Pang Firat Y. Testik Nadarajah Ravichandran Fangqian Liu 《Natural Hazards》2014,74(2):375-403
Combined effects of hurricane wind and surge can pose significant threats to coastal cities. Although current design codes consider the joint occurrence of wind and surge, information on site-specific joint distributions of hurricane wind and surge along the US Coast is still sparse and limited. In this study, joint hazard maps for combined hurricane wind and surge for Charleston, South Carolina (SC), were developed. A stochastic Markov chain hurricane simulation program was utilized to generate 50,000 years of full-track hurricane events. The surface wind speeds and surge heights from individual hurricanes were computed using the Georgiou’s wind field model and the Sea, Lake and Overland Surges from Hurricanes (SLOSH) model, respectively. To validate the accuracy of the SLOSH model, the simulated surge levels were compared to the surge levels calculated by another state-of-the-art storm surge model, ADCIRC (Advanced Circulation), and the actual observed water elevations from historical hurricane events. Good agreements were found between the simulated and observed water elevations. The model surface wind speeds were also compared with the design wind speeds in ASCE 7-10 and were found to agree well with the design values. Using the peak wind speeds and maximum surge heights, the joint hazard surfaces and the joint hazard maps for Charleston, SC, were developed. As part of this study, an interactive computer program, which can be used to obtain the joint wind speed and surge height distributions for any location in terms of latitude and longitude in Charleston area, was created. These joint hazard surfaces and hazard maps can be used in a multi-hazard design or risk assessment framework to consider the combined effects of hurricane wind and surge. 相似文献
2.
Over recent years, the prevalence of the West Nile virus (WNV) in Canada has greatly increased due to various factors including changes in feeding behavior among WNV vectors. To understand whether changes in climate are a significant factor, the association between the environment and cases of WNV-infected bird specimens from 2009 to 2012 in Ontario, Canada, was examined using SAS and Quantum Geographic Information Systems (QGIS). Through a generalized linear mixed analysis, monthly totals of cooling degree days (CDD) and a two-way interaction between maximum temperature (Tmax) and precipitation were significantly positively associated to past incidences of WNV; while Tmax, precipitation, and a two-way interaction between CDD and precipitation were significantly negatively associated to past incidences of WNV. With the effects of increased warming, locations at higher latitudes in Canada may soon be at risk to WNV, as a positive case of WNV in a bird specimen was found close to the near north of Ontario in 2012. 相似文献
3.
Victor R. Baker 《Environmental Geology》1975,1(2):75-88
A cooperative program in urban geology between the city of Boulder, Colorado, and the Department of Geological Sciences, University of Colorado, has been in effect since late 1969. The principal geological problems in the rapidly growing urban environment of Boulder include:
- Swelling clays in the Pierre Shale have been related to foundation failure, pavement heaving, and landsliding on hillslopes.
- Colluvium and ancient landslides have been made unstable by removal of support, by loading with buildings or fill, and by increases over natural moisture contents through lawn watering and septic-tank seepage.
- Flooding on high-gradient mountain streams has been caused by sedimentation induced by the constriction of natural channels through urban development. In May, 1969, Bear Canyon Creek overflowed its banks with a discharge of less than one-fifth its design capacity. Flooding was caused by coarse bedload deposited upstream from a culvert.
4.
Christopher von Schirach-Szmigiel 《GeoJournal》1978,2(2):133-146
The object of the paper is to analyze changes in modal and port allocation of general cargo flows in Sweden's foreign trade between 1960 and 1976. It summarizes some results of a forthcoming report on the project ‘Tendencies in Liner Shipping’ financed by the ‘Transport Research Delegation’, Stockholm. 相似文献
5.
Prof. T. K. Poiker Dr. 《GeoJournal》1982,6(3):241-249
Computer Cartography has gone through many changes during its short life. This article tries to document some of the results of the development. The major conclusions are: - whereas the application of computer mappins is fluurishing, conceptual development is slow; - as a result the applications are simpler than they could be, given the development of computer science, and brute force reigns over elegance. To exemplify these points, the main types of Geographic Information Systems are discussed with respect to their recent achievements: Catastral mapping, Thematic mapping, Topographic mapping, Resource Information Systems, and Digital Terrain Models. 相似文献
6.
Breaking tests on homogeneous earth-rock-fill dams destroyed by overtopping flow are presented. Two types of shear erosion are found: wetting shear erosion and quick shear erosion; the water level-discharge process is divided into “sharp rise and drop of flow” and “slow change of flow” types. Furthermore, overtopping break modes are divided into head-cut erosion and scour breaching mode (Mode 1), shear erosion and collapse breaching mode (Mode 2), and wetting shear erosion mode (Mode 3) based on the main failure types and their coupled mode during dam break. In Mode 1, the downstream slope encounters head-cut erosion at the onset of the breach and expands and undercuts gradually at the development stage; in Mode 2, the dam slope encounters rapid shear erosion and the downstream edge of the crest erodes quickly towards the upstream face at the onset of breach: the breach expands suddenly due to instability and collapse at both sides of the breach in its development stage; in Mode 3, the strength of the dam’s materials continuously decreases by wetting and erosion happens is localised at positions where wetting caused the most strength loss, no obvious breach was developed. Dam breaking time, dam-break flow process, and the maximum discharge flow varied for each breaking mode. Overtopping flow size, materials, height, and initial breach size of dam are important factors influencing breaking mode, by virtue of their changing the relative strength of the relationship between the critical shear stress of dam materials at the edge of the dam crest and the lower parts of its slope, and the given flow’s destruction capacity. Overtopping will cause different manifestations of damage to be exhibited, so modal classification is favourable for safety assessment and preparation of relevant protective measures for protection of earth-rock-fill dam against overtopping. 相似文献
7.
Pasteurella multocida, the causative bacterium of avian cholera, was isolated from cultures of the liver and heart blood of a female, adult American oystercatcher (Haematopus palliatus) found dead on the Cape Romain National Wildlife Refuge, South Carolina, in May 1973. This is apparently the first record of avian cholera in the oystercatcher. Low levels of DDE were identified in tissues of the oystercatcher. 相似文献
8.
Jean-Sébastien Moquet Laurence Maurice Alain Crave Jérôme Viers Nore Arevalo Christelle Lagane Waldo Lavado-Casimiro Jean-Loup Guyot 《Aquatic Geochemistry》2014,20(6):613-637
The dissolved load of the Amazon River is generally considered to be lowly impacted by anthropogenic activities. In this work, based on the chemical and hydrological database of the Environmental Research Observatory—HYBAM (http://www.ore-hybam.org), we explore the importance of the Peruvian Foreland petroleum activity on the dissolved Na and Cl fluxes of the Amazon River. The main result of this study allows us suggesting that oil extraction activity, concentrated in the El Tigre River basin, a small foreland watershed in the Peruvian Amazon, influenced drastically the Na and Cl exportation of the Amazon River during the 2006–2007 period. During these years, the dissolved exportations of this basin represented almost 20 % of the annual dissolved Cl Amazon flux and almost 12 % of the annual dissolved Na Amazon flux for a mean annual discharge <1 % of the Amazon River discharge. Since the last decades, the anthropogenic activities are increasing over the whole Amazon basin, especially in Andean countries. In this context, our results demonstrate that extractive activity cannot be considered as negligible on the hydro-chemistry of the Amazonian Rivers especially for the weathering budget estimation based on river-dissolved loads. Moreover, Cl and Na can be used to trace the formation waters derived from oil extraction at a large spatial scale. The environmental impacts of contaminants associated with deep water released to the hydrosystem (polycyclic aromatics hydrocarbons, metallic trace elements, etc.) at local and regional scales are still underestimated and should be monitored to map their local and regional influence and to prevent their risks on human health. 相似文献
9.
G. J. S. Govett W. D. Goodfellow R. P. Chapman C. Y. Chork 《Mathematical Geosciences》1975,7(5-6):415-446
The exploration geochemist faces a serious problem in reconciling theoretical statistics with the empirical distribution of elements in materials in the earth's crust. The results of computer-simulation experiments being conducted by the Exploration Geochemistry Group at the University of New Brunswick illustrate some of the problems of the relation between frequency distributions and spatial distributions of elements and raise some interesting questions about sampling patterns and physical size of samples. Most importantly, the simulation experiments and empirical examples support the contention that attempts to make an assumption of normality more efficient by performing log transformations on positively skewed data may defeat the purpose of statistical analysis for exploration work. New developments in computer-data presentation and interpretation, including population sorting and classification, illustrate the increasing use of the computer in exploration geochemistry. 相似文献
10.
A pyralspite garnet from an anomalously magnetic concentrate of a pegmatitic cassiterite ore has been investigated using 57Fe nuclear gamma-ray resonance spectroscopy. The quadrupole splitting and isomer shift values of 3.6 mm/s and 1.4 mm/s, respectively, are among the largest observed for Fe2+ ions and indicate a very low covalency of the dodecahedral Fe2+ — O2-bonds. These data support the more recent and lower value (10.2–10.1 kcal/ mole) of White and Moore (1972) for the CFSE of the dodecahedral Fe2+ ion and suggest that the CFSE should be a useful approximation to the site preference energy of Fe2+ for this site. 相似文献
11.
Subsidence has been affecting many cities around the world, such as Nagoya (Japan), Venice (Italy), San Joaquin Valley and Long Beach (California), and Houston (Texas). This phenomenon can be caused by natural processes and/or human activities, including but not limited to carbonate dissolution, extraction of material from mines, soil compaction, and fluid withdrawal. Surface deformation has been an ongoing problem in the Houston Metropolitan area because of the city’s location in a passive margin where faulting and subsidence are common. Most of the previous studies attributed the causes of the surface deformation to four major mechanisms: faulting, soil compaction, salt tectonics, and fluid withdrawal (groundwater withdrawal and hydrocarbon extraction). This work assessed the surface deformation in the greater Houston area and their possible relationship with fluid withdrawal. To achieve this goal, data from three complimentary remote sensing techniques Global Positioning System (GPS), Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR), and Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar were used. GPS rates for the last 17 years show a change in surface deformation patterns. High rates of subsidence in the northwestern areas (up to ~4 cm/year) and signs of uplift in the southeast are observed (up to 2 mm\year). High rates of subsidence appear to be decreasing. Contrary to previous studies in which the location of subsidence appeared to be expanding toward the northwest, current results show that the area of subsidence is shrinking and migrating toward the northeast. Digital elevation model generated from airborne LiDAR, revealed changes between salt domes and their surrounding areas. The persistent scatterer interferometry was performed using twenty-five (25) European remote sensing-1/2 scenes. Rates of change in groundwater level and hydrocarbon production were calculated using data from 261 observation wells and 658 hydrocarbon wells. A water level decline of 4 m/year was found in area of highest subsidence, this area also show ~70 million m3/year of hydrocarbon extraction. This study found strong correlation between fluid withdrawals and subsidence. Therefore, both groundwater and hydrocarbon withdrawal in northwest Harris County are considered to be the major drivers of the surface deformation. 相似文献
12.
Most of the Al3+ entering the pyroxenes does so by substituting for tetrahedral Si4+. This creates a charge imbalance that requires the simultaneous entry of Cr3+, Ti4+, Fe3+ or Al3+ into octahedral sites. Cr3+, because of its high crystal field stabilisation energy (CFSE), is the most important of these elements to enter the early-formed pyrosenes but it is replaced by Ti4+ later in fractionation when the Cr3+ content of the melt becomes depleted. The dependence of Cr3+ and Ti4+ on charge balance controls their partition between coexisting pyroxenes and olivines. Ca-rich pyroxene which contains more Al3+ than Ca-poor pyroxene also has more Ti4+ and Cr3+ whereas olivine, which contains negligible Al3+, has low Cr3+ and Ti4+. The Al3+ content of pyroxenes is influenced by changes in P, T, \(a_{{\text{SiO}}_{\text{2}} }\) and \(a_{{\text{Al}}_{\text{2}} {\text{O}}_{\text{3}} }\) of the magma and by the nature of the ion providing charge balance in the octahedral site. Of these \(a_{{\text{SiO}}_{\text{2}} }\) is dominant and variations in the Al3+ content of the Jimberlana pyroxenes correspond closely with the expected changes in the \(a_{{\text{SiO}}_{\text{2}} }\) of the melt. The substitution of divalent ions, such as Mn2+ and Ni2+, in the pyroxene lattice is by replacement of Fe2+ or Mg2+ in the octahedral M 3 and M 2 sites and is therefore independent of charge balance. If there are no size restrictions, the principal factor to be considered is the CFSE the ion receives in octahedral co-ordination. Ni2+, which receives a high CFSE, partitions strongly between the early-formed pyroxenes and olivines and therefore becomes depleted in the magma with fractionation. Conversely Mn2+, which receives zero CFSE, concentrates in the magma with fractionation and becomes a more important substitute in the later-formed pyroxenes. Its geochemical behaviour is controlled by its size. The narrow miscibility gap of the Jimberlana pyroxenes and the high En content of the Ca-poor pyroxenes at the bronzite pigeonite changeover suggest that these pyroxenes crystallised at a higher temperature than pyroxenes of comparable composition from other intrusions. 相似文献
13.
The equilibrium position of the reaction $$\begin{gathered} 1.5 KAlSi_3 O_8 + HCl = 0.5 KAl_3 Si_3 O_{10} (OH)_2 \hfill \\ + 3SiO_2 + KCl \hfill \\ \end{gathered} $$ has been located at 1 and 2 kb pressure and temperatures between 600° and 670° C using the Ag-AgCl buffer. These data can be combined with information on the dissociation of KC1, HC1 and H2O to determine species abundances in supercritical aqueous fluids in equilibrium with muscovite — K-feldspar — quartz assemblages. Chloride species become increasingly associated with increasingT, increasing total molality, (m tot or \(m_{Cl_{tot} } \) ), and decreasing \(P_{H_2 O} \) . Master variable diagrams indicate that the pH of the solutions may vary from near neutral to quite acid. Published data on the paragonite-albite-quartz reaction and exchange reactions involving feldspars and micas were included to calculate speciation in mica-feldspar-NaCl-KCl-HCl-H2O fluids at 2kb pressure and temperatures between 300° and 600° C. The data are not accurate enough to distinguish different feldspar structural states. Concentration gradients were calculated for individual species between K-feldspar+quartz, muscovite+quartz and andalusite+quartz assemblages at 500° C, 2 kb. Assuming that the proton diffuses most rapidly and that there are no [H+] gradients, the molality of the solution must vary 30-fold, with feldspar+quartz at the more concentrated side. The data on mica-feldspar-chloride equilibria are used to interpret the spacial distribution of micas, feldspar and quartz in microfolds. This distribution can be accounted for by pressure solution, due to the fact that non-hydrostatic pressure affects congruently dissolving minerals, auch as quartz, differently from minerals which dissolve incongruently, such as micas and feldspars. We postulate, that during folding at constant \(P_{H_2 O} \) ,T and \(m_{Cl - } \) , gradients in KC1 and SiO2 are created by stress differences between hinge and limb of a microfold, such that both migrate to the hinge area where quartz precipitates and muscovite is converted to K-felspar, thus accounting for the observed mineral distribution. 相似文献
14.
The paper presents the nature of variations of tropospheric and total ozone column retrieved from the Convective Cloud Differential (CCD) technique, Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI), and Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) data, National Aeronautics and Space Administrations (NASA), USA, respectively; surface temperature, relative humidity, total rainfall, ozone precursors (non-methane hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and sulphur dioxide) that are collected from India Meteorological Department (IMD), Alipore, Kolkata; solar insolation obtained from Solar Geophysical Data Book and El-Niño index collected from National Climatic Data Center, US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, USA. The effect of these climatic parameters and ozone precursors on ozone variations is critically analyzed and explained on the basis of linear regression and correlation. It has been observed that the maximum, minimum and mean temperature, relative humidity, solar insolation, tropospheric, and total ozone column (TOC) showed slight increasing tendencies from October 2004 to December 2011, while total rainfall and El-Niño index showed little decreasing tendencies for the same period. Amongst selected climatic parameters and ozone precursors, the solar insolation and the average temperature had a significant influence on both, the tropospheric ozone and total ozone column formation. The solar insolation had contributed more in tropospheric ozone than in total ozone column; while El-Niño index had played a more significant role in total ozone column build up than in tropospheric ozone. Negative correlation was observed between almost all ozone precursors with the tropospheric and total ozone. The tropospheric ozone and total ozone column were also significantly correlated. The level of significance and contribution of different climatic parameters are determined from correlation technique and Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) method. The related chemical kinetics for ozone production processes has been critically described. 相似文献
15.
In many applications in flows through porous media, one needs to determine the properties of subsurface to detect, monitor, or predict the actions of natural or induced forces. Here, we focus on two important subsurface properties: rock permeability and porosity. A Bayesian approach using a Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithm is well suited for reconstructing the spatial distribution of permeability and porosity, and quantifying associated uncertainty in these properties. A crucial step in this approach is the computation of a likelihood function, which involves solving a possibly nonlinear system of partial differential equations. The computation time for the likelihood function limits the number of MCMC iterations that can be performed in a practical period of time. This affects the consistency of the posterior distribution of permeability and porosity obtained by MCMC exploration. To speed-up the posterior exploration, we can use a prefetching technique, which relies on the fact that multiple likelihoods of possible states into the future in an MCMC chain can be computed ahead of time. In this paper, we show that the prefetching technique implemented on multiple processors can make the Bayesian approach computationally tractable for subsurface characterization and prediction of porous media flows. 相似文献
16.
The capital of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North Korea) is both the oldest and the newest settlement in Korea. The basic concepts in its early urban development made it the model for Korean cities of later ages. In the 6th and 7th century AD P’yôngyang was one of the largest cities in Asia, second only to the imperial capital of China, but it later declined. It partly recovered its former position when it became the capital of North Korea after World War II. Its reconstruction since the Korean War has made it one of the most striking examples of socialist city planning. 相似文献
17.
We implement a hierarchical Bayesian spatiotemporal (HBST) model to forecast the daily trapped particle flux distribution over the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)-15 data from 1–30 March 2008 with particle energies as >30 keV (mep0e1) and >300 keV (mep0e3) for electrons and 80–240 keV (mep0p2) and > 6900 keV (mep0p6) for protons were used as the model input to forecast the flux values on 31 March 2008. Data were transformed into logarithmic values and gridded in a 5°×5° longitude and latitude size to fulfill the modelling precondition. A Monte Carlo Markov chain (MCMC) was then performed to solve the HBST Gaussian Process (GP) model by using the Gibbs sampling method. The result for this model was interpolated by a Kriging technique to achieve the whole distribution figure over the SAA region. Statistical results of the root mean square error (RMSE), mean absolute percentage error (MAPE), and bias (BIAS) showed a good indicator of the HBST method. The statistical validation also indicated the high variability of particle flux values in the SAA core area. The visual validation showed a powerful combination of HBST-GP model with Kriging interpolation technique. The Kriging also produced a good quality of the distribution map of particle flux over the SAA region as indicated by its small variance value. This suggests that the model can be applied in the development of a Low Earth Orbit (LEO)-Equatorial satellite for monitoring trapped particle radiation hazard. 相似文献
18.
A general model for the structural state of iron in a variety of silicate and aluminosilicate glass compositions in the systems Na2O-Al2O3-SiO2-Fe-O, CaO-Al2O3-SiO2-Fe-O, and MgO-Al2O3-SiO2-Fe-O is proposed. Quenched melts with variable Al/Si and NBO/T (average number of nonbridging oxygens per tetrahedrally coordinated cation), synthesized over a range of temperatures and values of oxygen fugacity, are analyzed with57Fe Mössbauer spectroscopy. For oxidized glasses with Fe3+/∑Fe>0.50, the isomer shift for Fe3+ is in the range ～0.22–0.33 mm/s and ～0.36 mm/s at 298 K and 77 K, respectively. These values are indicative of tetrahedrally coordinated Fe3?. This assignment is in agreement with the interpretation of Raman, luminescence, and X-ray,K-edge absorption spectra. The values of the quadrupole splitting are ～0.90 mm/s (298 K and 77 K) in the Na-aluminosilicate glasses and compare with the values of 1.3 mm/s and 1.5 mm/s for the analogous Ca- and Mg-aluminosilicate compositions. The variations in quadrupole splittings for Fe3+ are due to differences in the degree of distortion of the tetrahedrally coordinated site in each of the systems. The values of the isomer shifts for Fe2+ ions in glasses irrespective of Fe3+/∑Fe are in the range 0.90–1.06 mm/s at 298 K and 1.0–1.15 mm/s at 77 K. The corresponding range of values of the quadrupole splitting is 1.75–2.10 mm/s at 298 K and 2.00–2.35 mm/s at 77 K. The temperature dependence of the hyperfine parameters for Fe2+ is indicative of noninteracting ions, but the values of the isomer shift are intermediate between those values normally attributable to tetrahedrally and octahedrally coordinated Fe2+. The assignment of the isomer-shift values of Fe2+ to octahedral coordination is in agreement with the results of other spectral studies. For reduced glasses (Fe3+/∑Fe≈<0.50), the value of the isomer shift for Fe3+ at both 298 K and 77 K increases and is linearly correlated with decreasing Fe3+/∑Fe in the range of \(f_{O_2 } \) between 10?3 and 10?6 atm when a single quadrupole-split doublet is assumed to represent the absorption due to ferric iron. The increase in value of the isomer shift with decreasing \(f_{O_2 } \) is consistent with an increase in the proportion of Fe3+ ions that are octahedrally coordinated. The concentration of octahedral Fe3+ is dependent on the \(T - f_{O_2 } \) conditions, and in the range of log \(f_{O_2 } \) between 10?2.0 and 10?5 a significant proportion of the iron may occur as iron-rich structural units with stoichiometry similar to that of inverse spinels such as Fe3O4, in addition to isolated Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions. 相似文献
19.
A. Kühberger T. Fehr H. G. Huckenholz G. Amthauer 《Physics and Chemistry of Minerals》1989,16(8):734-740
Ti-andradites were synthesized at a pressure of P(H2O)=3 kbar and temperatures of 700–800° C. Oxygen fugacities were controlled by solid state buffers (Ni/NiO; SiO2 + Fe/Fe2SiO4). The Fe2+-and Fe3+-distribution was determined by low temperature Mössbauer spectroscopy. The water content was measured by a solid's moisture analyzer. The chemical composition of the synthetic and the natural sample has been determined by electron microprobe. Ti-andradites from runs at high oxygen fugacities have Fe3+ on octahedral and tetrahedral sites; Ti-andradites from runs at low oxygen fugacities have tetrahedrally and octahedrally coordinated Fe2+ as well. These “reduced” garnets must also contain Ti3+ on octahedral sites. Charge balance is maintained due to substitution of O2? by (OH)? by two mechanisms: (SiO4)4? ? (O4H4)4? and (Fe3+O6)9? ? (Fe2+O5OH)9?. FTIR spectra of the synthetic samples do show the presence of structurally bound (OH)?. In a natural sample tetrahedrally and octahedrally coordinated Fe3+ are observed together with Fe2+ on all three cation sites of the garnet structure. 相似文献
20.
Sassa and others in the Disaster Prevention Research Institute (DPRI), Kyoto University, developed a series of undrained ring-shear apparatus to physically simulate landslide initiation and motion, from DPRI-3 (Sassa 1992) to DPRI-7 (Sassa et al., Landslides 1(1):7–19, 2004). The maximum undrained capacities in the DPRI series ranged from 300 to 650 kPa. Sassa and others in the International Consortium on Landslides (ICL) have developed a new series of undrained ring-shear apparatus (ICL-1and ICL-2) for two projects of the International Programme on Landslides (IPL-161 and IPL-175). Both projects are supported by the Science and Technology Research Partnership for Sustainable Development Program (SATREPS) of Japan. ICL-1 was developed to create a compact and transportable apparatus for practical use in Croatia; one set was donated to Croatia in 2012. ICL-2 was developed in 2012–2013 to simulate the initiation and motion of megaslides of more than 100 m in thickness. The successful undrained capacity of ICL-2 is 3 MPa. This apparatus was applied to simulate possible conditions for the initiation and motion of the 1792 Unzen–Mayuyama megaslide (volume, 3.4?×?108 m3; maximum depth, 400 m) triggered by an earthquake. The megaslide and resulting tsunami killed about 15,000 people. The Unzen Restoration Office of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (MLIT) of Japan systematically collected various papers and reports and published two summary leaflets: one in English in 2002 and an extended version in Japanese in 2003. Samples were taken from the source area (for initiation) and the moving area (for motion). The hazard area was estimated by the integrated landslide simulation model LS-RAPID, using parameters obtained with the ICL-2 undrained ring-shear apparatus. The estimated hazard area agrees reasonably with the landslide moving area reported in the Ministry leaflets. 相似文献