One hundred and twenty-four fishing areas were identified and georeferenced according to fishermen's traditional ecological knowledge. Nearly 80% of the designations of the fishing areas were known by fishermen only and are registered for the first time. Fishermen identify fishing areas according to depth, wooden logs used to anchor fixed nets, gradation of water transparency, and traditional use of certain areas. This study reveals the richness of knowledge held by fishermen, it illustrates their solid straight relationship with the natural environment where they live, and shows the potential uses of TEK for fisheries management. 相似文献
Essentially, this paper aims at considering how the ocean regionalisation may be implemented focusing on the principle of sustainable development, on the subsequent criteria designed by the inter-governmental organisation framework, and on the approaches from the scientific literature. In this respect, a model is proposed, according to which two main stages are identified: (i) the stage of the modern approach to the ocean, which was operated by the modern society and was supported by the culture of modernity; (ii) the stage of the post-modern approach, which has been triggered by the converging inputs from the changes in society and nature. The watershed between these two stages may be located in the 1970s. The investigation may be carried out considering a triangular relationship between (i) the changing ocean reality (ontological dimension), (ii) the representation of this reality (semiological dimension), and (iii) the building up of signified, consisting in theories, meta-theories and values (epistemological and ethical dimensions). In this framework, special relevance is attributed to the interaction between science and policy.Moving from this basis, how ocean regionalisation had been conceived by oceanography, geography and law is considered focusing on the implications that have arisen in terms of ocean management. Analysis is essentially focused on three questions: (i) how much the conceptual implications of the approach to the ocean regional scale have been underestimated, and how ample the political consequences have been; (ii) why the political designs referring to this spatial scale of the ocean, which have been carrying out since the 1970s, have been marked by a lack of consistency of the legal framework with the prospect of operating sustainable management programmes; (iii) whether, and what kind of, discrepancy has solidified between the legal framework, provided by the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), and the ecosystem-oriented approach to the ocean, designed by the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED).These considerations lead to identify three cardinal needs. First, the need to try lessons from the Regional Seas Programme of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) by carrying out a critical analysis of the conceptual background and methodological endowment which it was based on, and of the subsequent political outcomes. Secondly, an increasing need for scientific approaches supported by the consideration of the ocean as a bi-modular system consisting in ecosystems and organisational patterns, being both modules subject to the impacts from global change and globalisation. Thirdly, a need to design and operate a more effective interaction between science and policy, and, as far as science in itself is concerned, the need to design a more epistemologically-sound interaction between natural and social disciplines.Moving from this discussion, it is proposed to distinguish the mere ocean area, where the organisational patterns have not yet created a real ocean system, from the ocean region, which differently has acquired the features of an ocean system. These two kinds of spaces may be found in the coastal milieu, extending up to the outer edge of the continental margin, in the deep-ocean, extending seawards from the continental margin, or they may extend across the continental margin and the deep-ocean. Where it is agreed that ocean reality may evolve on the basis of these two reference patterns, the following sequence of conceptual mises-au-point and statements may be considered.
• The ocean area—This kind of ocean space may solidify in those areas where the ocean is frequented and used in the traditional ways without benefiting from a well-designed organisational pattern. Human presence and resource uses have brought about spatial differentiation but not such a real cohesion which may be only achieved by adopting an organisational plan.
• The ocean region—This occurs only where an ocean area is endowed with such an organisational framework that allows the pursuit of clearly pre-determined objectives in terms of environmental, resource management, and economic development. This is the product of an extensive human interaction with the ocean ecosystem, and of a substantial political approach to the ocean milieu.
Where it is agreed that ocean reality may evolve on the basis of these two reference patterns, the following sequence of conceptual mises-au-point and statements may be considered:
• The ocean region and regional strategy—At the present time, ocean regions may be found only in quite limited parts of the ocean world.
• The final objective—Where the decision-making centres conform their programmes and actions to the principles and guidelines from UNCED, the objective of each ocean region should be the pursuit of sustainable development on the regional scale.
• Sustainable region—This occurs where the regional organisation is primarily based on the protection of the ecosystem integrity, where economic development operates through the optimisation of resource usage, and where social equity, including the access to the natural and cultural heritage of the ocean environment, is guaranteed.
• Ocean regionalisation—When an individual ocean is subject to the organisational forces that lead to the creation of regions, it can be stated that an ocean regionalisation has occurred.
• Global change—Ocean regionalisation should be viewed as one of the most important consequences of the global, environmental and social change that characterises the present phase of society.
• Globalisation—The setting up of a transport and communication global network, together with the associated establishment of global production and consume patterns, of market strategies and social behaviour, may be regarded as the cardinal set of socio-economic factors, which ocean regionalisation is going to increasingly depend on.
• Enlargement of the geographical approach—The development of ocean regions encourages to set up effective inter-disciplinary approaches, that primarily should focus on: (i) the consistency of the regional organisation with the regional objectives; (ii) the consistency of the ocean resource use with the protection of the ecosystem, primarily the safeguard of its biodiversity, productivity and resilience; and (iii) the configuration and functions of the decision-making system in guiding regional organisation.
• Ocean region and ecosystem—The most desirable conditions in terms of optimal ocean organisation on the regional scale occur where the spatial extent of the ocean, which is encompassed by an individual regional management programme, fully coincides with the spatial extent of an ocean ecosystem, or with a set of contiguous ecosystems.
• Decision-making systems—The more the co-operative process between decision-making systems operating in contiguous ocean regions develops, the greater the potential for a holistic political approach to the oceans becomes. The spatial consequences deriving from the interaction between the decision-making centres are of peculiar interest.
Article Outline
1. A background issue
1.1. The legal reason
1.2. The scientific reason
2. The modern ocean regionalisation
2.1. The initial approach
2.2. The mature approach
2.2.1. Complication of surface regionalisation
2.2.2. Rise of seabed regionalisation
2.2.3. Interaction between ocean and atmosphere regionalisation
3. The post-modern ocean regionalisation
3.1. Interaction between policy and law
3.1.1. First pattern, wide holistic approach
3.1.2. Second pattern, limited holistic approach
3.2. The coastal perspective
3.2.1. The 200 m isobath
3.2.2. The outer edge of the continental margin
3.3. The ocean region designs
3.4. Signifiers, signs and signified in the post-modern context
3.5. Newly designed ocean regions
3.6. In the search for a conceptual track
4. A post-modern forum
4.1. Ocean reality
4.2. Language and representation
4.3. Policy and ethics
4.4. Tracing lines and zoning
Acronyms
Acknowledgements
References
There is an African proverb that says: ‘The earth is not ours, it is a treasure we hold in trust for our children and their children.’ And I hope my generation and yours will be worthy of this trust.Kofi AnnanKey note speech to the 97th Annual Meeting of the Association of American Geographers, New York, March 1st, 2001
1. A background issue
A palpable gap may be found in the present political approach to the ocean, and in the relevant scientific backgrounds. It has taken shape between the conceptual sense of the ocean sustainable development, on the one hand, and the approach to the ocean on the regional scale, on the other. The sustainable development concept leads to pursuing three goals contextually: (i) ecological integrity, specifically referring to the genetic, species and ecosystem diversity; (ii) economic efficiency, basically implying the replacement of the conventional concept of economic growth with that of human development; (iii) social equity, essentially meant as the safeguard of the cultural values and the preserving of rights of future generations. This broad objective design assumes ecological diversity as the prerequisite to pursue any other goal, namely economic efficiency and social equity [1]. As a result, where the regionalisation of the ocean is set up for management purposes, the ecological features and processes should be considered as the attributes to be considered first. Nevertheless, apart from some specific cases, which have not influenced the ocean governance as a whole, this approach has not been operated.This is due to two concurrent reasons. First, a reason rooted on the legal approach to the ocean. As is well known, at the present time, any approach to the regional scale of ocean management is based on the legal frameworks provided by the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. Nevertheless, is should be wondered whether the Convention background design had been marked by some basic lack, and whether and how policy has been influenced. Secondly, a reason rooted in a lack of scientific approach to ocean regionalisation. It should be wondered whether science had been able to provide adequate conceptual frameworks, and empirical approaches, to the ocean governance on the regional scale (Fig. 1). 相似文献
