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1.
《Comptes Rendus Geoscience》2015,347(3):105-111
The income of the scientists in France during the 17th to the middle of the 19th century is reviewed and compared to the cost of their instruments. Only a small number of scientists received enough public money to be able to do full-time research; this number increased substantially after the Revolution. Most scientists had to have other sources of income, in particular to be able to purchase their instruments. Large research projects, generally decided and financed by the Academy of Sciences, took place during this period, requiring collaborative interdisciplinary efforts and a considerable logistics: they anticipate our present cooperative programs and giant research facilities. 相似文献
2.
《Marine Policy》2017
Heavy loads of the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus cause severe damage in many waters in the world. Nutrient trading markets where capped firms can buy and sell nutrient load credits have been established in several countries in order to achieve certain nutrient reduction targets at minimum costs for society. The availability of multifunctional nutrient abatement measures that simultaneously reduce loads of both nutrients, such as wetland construction, raises the issue of credit stacking, i.e. whether a firm constructing the wetland should earn credits for both nutrients. This article examines theoretically and empirically the implications of establishing alternative nutrient trading market designs (markets with and without credit stacking, a market for a bundled payment of nutrients, and separate markets for either nutrient) for total costs and achievement of stipulated nutrient reduction targets for the Baltic Sea. The results show that the total abatement cost of achieving reduction targets of both nutrients is always lowest if a market design with credit stacking is established, that markets without credit stacking result in higher abatement cost and nutrient abatement in excess of the reduction targets, and that none of the single nutrient market systems is able to generate the required abatement of both nutrients. The application to the Baltic Sea shows that the total abatement cost can be 20% higher when credit stacking is not allowed than when it is allowed. 相似文献
3.
Conservation actions generally benefit some groups more than others, and this inequity is thought to affect the probability of achieving conservation objectives. This has led to the common assumption that triple bottom line solutions – those that are effective, efficient, and equitable – are best and most likely to achieve each individual objective. Although this may be true, it has been little tested, and importantly lacks a conceptual foundation for understanding, predicting and evaluating how equity affects conservation outcomes. We describe types of equity relevant to conservation and explore how they may affect the probability of successfully achieving conservation outcomes. Depending on the equity type and context, the relationship between equity and conservation success varies. We find that the best conservation outcome is often achieved without perfect equity; highlighting the risk of ignoring the relationship between equity and success. We offer a conceptual foundation for better addressing this important issue in future research and application. 相似文献
4.
Financial efficiency of major soil and water conservation measures in West Usambara highlands, Tanzania 总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2
Soil and Water Conservation (SWC) measures are needed to control soil erosion and sustain agricultural production on steep slopes of West Usambara mountains. However, the adoption by farmers of the recommended soil and water conservation measures is low and soil erosion continues to be a problem. It could well be that the reason for the low adoption is that the costs to invest in soil and water conservation are higher than the eventual benefits. This research assessed the costs and benefits of bench terraces, grass strips and fanya juu, which are major SWC measures. Financial Cost Benefit Analysis (FCBA) was undertaken for farmers with low, moderate and high opportunity costs of labour at different slopes and soil types. The results show that labour is the major cost item in implementing SWC measures and is higher with bench terraces than with fanya juu and grass strips. The results also show that the costs of establishing the three SWC measures exceed the returns in the initial 2 years. However, in the long term, the three SWC measures are profitable to farmers with low to medium opportunity costs of labour on gentle to moderate slopes. It was also found that SWC measures are not financially attractive to most farmers with off-farm activities and other sources of income. It is concluded that high investment costs and initial negative returns are the major hindrances to the adoption of SWC measures by smallholder farmers in West Usambara mountains. Options to overcome the initial investment costs include the gradual investment in SWC measures, introduction of high value crops and small credit facilities. The promotion of dairy cattle under zero grazing system can also increase the adoption of SWC measures because of the high benefits from grasses used to stabilise SWC measures. 相似文献
5.
Kyung-Hwan Kim 《GeoJournal》2001,53(1):17-28
This paper describes and evaluates the impact of spatial policies towards the Capital Region of Korea (the Seoul Capital Region hereafter). Following the introductory section, the second section presents an overview of trends of concentrations of people and employment in the Seoul Capital Region since 1960. The evolution of spatial policies and the major policy instruments employed is described together with an assessment of the validity of the perception of excessive concentration in the Region. In the third section, the impact of spatial polices towards the Seoul Capital Region is evaluated based on new empirical evidence as well as findings from previous studies. The impact of policies on the spatial distribution of jobs and populations between the Seoul Capital Region and the rest of the country, as well as that of specific policies such as green belts, and the new towns project is analyzed. The section ends with a discussion of public opinion on spatial policies revealed through recent surveys. The last section addresses the political economy of spatial policies and concludes with thoughts on the way forward considering the changing environment for spatial policies. 相似文献
6.
《Marine Policy》2015
Neoliberal economic and social policies during the last 65 years have placed a premium on continuous economic growth. Concern among ecological economists and other critics that economic growth results in loss of natural capital and ecosystem services led to introduction of the concept of “uneconomic growth,” defined as “growth of the macro economy that costs us more than it is worth” (Daly and Farley, Ecological economics principles and applications. Washington: Island Press; 2004). This paper proposes the concept of “unjust uneconomic growth” to pinpoint the additional costs of policies that promote uneconomic growth to the neglect of other considerations and uses the case of Newfoundland and Labrador fisheries policies since 1992 to document it. Newfoundland and Labrador fisheries experienced uneconomic growth in the 1980s leading to the collapse of ground fish stocks. The policies enacted since 1993 based on economic growth goals have failed to solve the ecological-social crisis and entailed additional costs to small-scale fisheries. 相似文献
7.
《Marine Policy》2016
Sustained ocean observations are crucial to understand both natural processes occurring in the ocean and human influence on the marine ecosystems. The information they provide increases our understanding and is therefore beneficial to the society as a whole because it contributes to a more efficient use and protection of the marine environment, upon which human livelihood depends. In addition the oceans, which occupy 73% of the planet surface and host 93% of the biosphere, play a massive role in controlling the climate. Eulerian or fixed-point observatories are an essential component of the global ocean observing system as they provide several unique features that cannot be found in other systems and are therefore complementary to them. In addition they provide a unique opportunity for multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary work, combining physical, chemical and biological observations on several time scales. The fixed-point open ocean observatory network (FixO3) integrates the 23 European open ocean fixed-point observatories in the Atlantic Ocean and in the Mediterranean Sea. The programme also seeks to improve access to key installations and the knowledge they provide for the wider community, from scientists, to businesses, to civil society. This paper summarises the rationale behind open ocean observatories monitoring the essential ocean variables. It also provides an estimate of the costs to operate a typical fixed-point observatory such as those included in the FixO3 network. Finally an assessment of the type of data and services provided by ocean observations and their value to society is also given. 相似文献
8.
Lynette C. McLoughlin 《The Australian geographer》2000,31(2):183-208
Described by Governor Phillip as 'the finest harbour in the world', Sydney Harbour was affected by accelerated sedimentation very soon after settlement in 1788. Dredging began in 1842 to deal with the problems caused by sedimentation and to enhance foreshore amenity. By the end of the nineteenth century, dredging was also excavating the bottom of the Harbour and its bays to accommodate larger ships with deeper draughts, and dredged sediment was increasingly used to reclaim mudflats or marshes deemed unhealthy or unsightly, thereby creating additional useful waterfront land. There was virtually continuous dredging in some part or other of the Harbour and its tributaries for almost 140 years. With increasing costs and mounting environmental concerns, dredging is now intermittent, and carried out largely to facilitate navigation for specific projects, despite continued sedimentation. While there was an early lack of understanding of the Australian environment and the impact of clearing on soils, the causes of increased sedimentation had been documented by the 1860s. However, measures to seriously address causes were not introduced until late in the twentieth century. This paper briefly outlines the development of the Sydney estuary to 1788, considers the impact of settlement in accelerating sedimentation, traces the development of dredging and reclamation, and discusses their significance for a number of areas of current research and environmental management, as well as to social and economic history. Within the limitations of the data available, annual sediment dredged, annual expenditure, cost per tonne, and areas reclaimed by dredging and filling are included. 相似文献
9.
In this synthesis article, we claim that institutional innovation is required for ecosystem-based approaches to fisheries management (EBAFM), and that such innovation can best be achieved by engaging in a delicate process of societal decision making. Current instances of participation in fisheries shed light on the societal processes required for such institutional innovation. We apply the IBEFish analytical frame to examine findings from recent European research on participation in fisheries management at different jurisdictional levels. We distil several issues of major concern for institutional innovation towards EBAFM. These concern information management, legitimacy, social dynamics and costs, as well as aspects of cross-scale and cross-sector integration of fisheries governance. 相似文献
10.
Since at least three decades tributyltin had been commonly used in paint formulations to protect ship hulls and submersed surfaces from fouling. This has resulted in negative and Technology, effects to the marine environment due to its high toxicity towards non‐target organisms and to its accumulation in sediments, especially near point sources of pollution. Even if a ban of TBT for its application in anti‐fouling paints is enforced the problem of TBT‐contaminated sediments will remain for the coming years due to the low degradation rates of organotin in sediments. In this work an electrochemical process at a pilot scale to destroy TBT in sediments was investigated. Previous experiences at a laboratory and technical scale have demonstrated the potential of this process to electrolytically degrade organotin species in sediments. This article deals with the optimisation of the pilot plant performance in terms of organotin degradation and operation costs monitoring additionally the effect of the electrochemical treatment on other pollutants such as heavy metals, PCBs, and PAHs. The aim was to investigate by means of a parametric study the range of operating conditions required to destroy TBT down to concentrations lower than 100 μg/kg; to determine the influence of those parameters on the performance of the process; and to evaluate the operation costs associated to the process. It was determined that it was possible to destroy TBT down to 100 μg/kg at current densities in the range of 4.4 to 6.6 mA/cm2 and chloride concentrations of least of 0.2 mol/L with operation costs of 13 to 18 EUR/m3. 相似文献