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1.
At 31 sites in Finland the Zn content was determined of the epiphytic lichen Hypogymnia physodes (L.) Nyl. growing on pine and birch, the terricolous lichen Cladina spp. in pine bark, and the inner part of birch bark. The anomalous contents of Zn in H. physodes on pine and Cladina spp. in soil appeared to be strongly related to sulphide ore deposits. Anthropogenic Zn correlated closely with S and Fe in H. physodes on pine and with Fe in Cladina spp. The binding of geogenic Zn was related to iron hydroxides, and was attributed to the different uptake mechanism of S in these lichens. Elevated values of Zn in H. physodes on birch were due to both geogenic and anthropogenic sources. Zinc in pine bark increased with the Zn content in H. physodes and reached a limiting value.  相似文献   

2.
Rhythmic zoning is ubiquitous in igneous rocks. Based on polymerization and regular solution models, a non-ideal, disequilibrium and non-linear interface equation has been established to describe the process of crystal growth:f = 1/[1 + (β/x s )(1 -x s )exp(-W / RT)(1 - 2f)] wheref and xs represent respectively the mole fraction of a component in the crystal and melt at the interface;W the total exchange energy;R the gas constant; andT the temperature; β=k B /k A , withk A andk B representing respectively the rate constants of components A and B. Results of numerical simulation of the equation demonstrate that a domain of triple valuedness exists ifW / RT < -2. This model, together with the mass balance equation, explains reasonably the rhythmic phenomena in silicate solid solutions, indicating that self-organization is responsible for this process during mineral growth.  相似文献   

3.
Volatile constituents in magmatic inclusions   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  
Laser Raman microprobe has been applied to the analysis of volatile components in shrinkage gas bubbles of individual magmatic inclusions in quartz crystal fragments and phenocrystals from the Mesozoic volcanic complexes of Tonglu and Shouchang, Zhejiang Province. Quantitative analyses are given for CO2, CH4, H2O, CO, H2, N2, H2S, and SO2. In conjunction with the microthermometry and microbarometry data and the chemical composition of magmatic inclusions, the results permit one to calculate the physico-chemical parametersP total,fO 2 ,fCO 2 ,fCH 4 ,fH 2O,fCO, andfH 2 at the time individual magmatic inclusions were trapped. Based on the data obtained, some physico-chemical conditions for the Mesozoic volcanic magma evolution in the Tonglu and Shouchang areas are discussed. This work shows that this type of studies has become an indispensable new and rising domain in modern magmatic petrology, especially modern volcanic petrology. It can help us to reconstruct the physico-chemistry of the crystallization-evolution of a natural magma. The project was financially supported by the National Science Foundation of China.  相似文献   

4.
Diffusion couples made from homogeneous gem quality natural pyrope and almandine garnets were annealed within graphite capsules under anhydrous conditions at 22–40 kbar, 1057–1400 °C in a piston-cylinder apparatus. The concentration profiles that developed in each couple were modeled to retrieve the self diffusion coefficients [D(I)] of the divalent cations Fe, Mg, Mn and Ca. Because of their usually low concentrations and lack of sufficient compositional change across the interface of the diffusion couples, only a few reliable data can be obtained for D(Ca) and D(Mn) from these experiments. However, nine sets of D(Fe) and D(Mg) data were retrieved in the above P-T range, and cast in the form of Arrhenian relation, D=D 0exp{−[Q(1 bar)+PΔV +]/RT}. The values of the activation energy (Q) and activation volume (ΔV +) depend on whether f O2 is constrained by graphite in the system C-O or held constant. For the first case, we have for Fe:Q(1 bar)=65,532±10,111 cal/mol, D 0=3.50 (±2.30)×10−5 cm2/s, ΔV +=5.6(±2.9) cm3/mol, and for Mg:Q(1 bar)=60,760±8,257 cal/mol, D 0=4.66 (±2.48)×10−5 cm2/s, ΔV +=5.3(±3.0) cm3/mol. Here the ΔV + values have been taken from Chakraborty and Ganguly (1992). For the condition of constant f O2, the Q values are ∼9 kcal lower and ΔV + values are ∼4.9 cm3/mol larger than the above values. Lower temperature extrapolation of the Arrhenian relation for D(Mg) is in good agreement with the Mg tracer diffusion data (D * Mg) of Chakraborty and Rubie (1996) and Cygan and Lasaga (1985) at 1 bar, 750–900 °C, when all data are normalized to the same pressure and to f O2 defined by graphite in the system C-O. The D * Mg data of Schwandt et al. (1995), on the other hand, are lower by more than an order of magnitude than the low temperature extrapolation of the present data, when all data are normalized to the same pressure and to f O2 defined by the graphite buffer. Comparison of the D(Fe), D(Mg) and D(Mn) data in the pyrope-almandine diffusion couple with those in the spessartine-almandine diffusion couple of Chakraborty and Ganguly (1992) shows that the self diffusion of Fe and Mn are significantly enhanced with the increase in Mn/Mg ratio; the enhancement effect on D(Mg) is, however, relatively small. Proper application of the self diffusion data to calculate interdiffusion coefficient or D matrix elements for the purpose of modeling of diffusion processes in natural garnets must take into account these compositional effects on D(I) along with the effects of thermodynamic nonideality, f O2, and pressure. Received: 8 May 1997 / Accepted: 2 October 1997  相似文献   

5.
Multipath diffusion in geochronology   总被引：5，自引：0，他引：5  
Recent developments in microanalytical tools such as the ion and laser microprobe have revealed spatial distributions of radiogenic isotopes in minerals which cannot be explained by a simple volume diffusion mechanism. Although it is known that diffusion of a substance along extended defects (such as dislocations, exsolution lamellae, micropores, microfractures, fission tracks, etc.), which may serve as high-diffusivity pathways in a crystal, can significantly influence the bulk diffusivity of a mineral, this has largely been ignored in the field of geochronology. A general numerical model has been developed, which solves coupled multipath diffusion equations that describe the simultaneous diffusion of a solute species through both the crystal lattice (via volume diffusion) and high-diffusivity pathways (via short-circuit diffusion) under non-steady state conditions. Addition of a radioactive source term to the appropriate equations further allows for the modelling of integrated cooling ages and closure temperatures, and has direct pertinence to geochronological and thermochronologial studies. Three key criteria can be used to distinguish multipath diffusion mechanisms from volume diffusion mechanisms: (a) non-Fickian concentration profiles, (b) enhanced solute diffusivity with increasing mineral grain size, and (c) a lack of any correlation between closure temperatures (and cooling ages) and larger grain sizes. With multipath diffusion, the effective diffusion dimension a for certain minerals appears to remain on the order of the grain size, and the model can adequately explain observed increases in the bulk diffusion coefficient D b with a in the hydrothermal bomb data of previous Ar diffusion studies. Arrhenius diagrams of a multipath diffusion D b vs 1/T will consist of curves that have a kink in them, reflecting a continuous change in the relative importance of the different diffusion mechanisms with temperature. The most important consequence of multipath diffusion is that the overall bulk diffusion coefficient D b of a diffusing species can be enhanced significantly above its volume diffusion coefficient D v . As a result, integrated ages and effective closure temperatures (T c ) can be much lower than those predicted assuming only a volume diffusion mechanism, to the extent that minerals normally characterized by low volume-diffusion T c may potentially have older integrated ages that minerals normally associated with higher volume-diffusion T c .  相似文献   

6.
Earthquakes in Switzerland and surrounding regions during 2004   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  
This report of the Swiss Seismological Service summarizes the seismic activity in Switzerland and surrounding regions during 2004. During this period, 677 earthquakes and 96 quarry blasts were detected and located in the region under consideration. With 22 events with ML≥2.5, the seismic activity in the year 2004 was close to the average over the last 30 years. As in previous years, most of the activity was concentrated in the Valais and in Graubünden. In addition, several moderate earthquakes occurred in the lower crust below the northern Alpine foreland. Unusual was that five earthquakes were sufficiently strong to cause ground shaking of intensity IV over large portions of the territory. Two were located in Switzerland (Liestal, ML 3.8, and Brugg, ML 4.0). The epicenters of the other three strong events were located outside Switzerland (Besan?on in the French Jura, ML 4.8, Waldkirch in southern Germany, ML 5.1, and Lago di Garda in northern Italy, ML 5.3).  相似文献   

7.
We present new experimental data on diffusion of divalent cations in almandine-spessartine diffusion couples in graphite capsules in the P-T range of 14–35 kb, 1100–1200° C. The tracer diffusion coefficients of the major divalent cations, viz. Fe, Mg and Mn, retrieved from the multicomponent diffusion profiles, have been combined with earlier data from our laboratory at 29–43 kb, 1300–1480° C (Loomis et al. 1985) to derive expressions of the P-T dependence of the diffusion coefficients at fO2 approximately corresponding to that defined by equilibrium in the system graphite-O2. We review the conditions, discussed earlier by Cooper, under which the flux of a component in a multicomponent system becomes proportional to its concentration gradient (Fickian diffusion), as if the entire solvent matrix behaves as a single component, and also suggest a method of incorporating the thermodynamic effect on diffusion in the same spirit. Regardless of the magnitude or sign of the off-diagonal terms of the D matrix, it is always possible to define an effective binary diffusion coefficient (EBDC) of a component in a semi-infinite multicomponent diffusion-couple experiment such that it has the property of the Fickian diffusion coefficient, provided that there is no inflection on the diffusion profiles. It is shown that the success of Elphick et al. in fitting the experimental diffusion profiles of all components over a limited concentration range by a single diffusion coefficient is due to fortuitous similarity of the EBDCs of the components (Fe, Mg, Mn and Ca) in their diffusion couple experiments. In common metapelitic garnets showing compositional zoning, the EBDCs of the divalent cations do not differ from each other by more than a factor of 2.5. However, the EBDC of a component changes from core to rim by a factor of 3 to 12, depending on the composition. We suggest a method of volume averaging of the EBDC which should prove useful in approximate calculations of diffusion flux during relaxation of compositional zoning. The EBDC of Mn is found to reduce essentially to D MnMn, the main diagonal term of the D matrix, and consequently can be calculated quite easily. Evaluation of EBDC of Fe, Mg and Mn in garnets from a prograde Barrovian sequence did not reveal any significant dependence on the extent of relaxation of garnet. The diffusion data have been applied to calculate the cooling rate of natural biotite-garnet diffusion couple from eastern Finland and diffusional modification of growth zoning in garnet in early Proterozoic Wopmay orogen, Canada. The results are in good agreement with geochronological and other independent constraints.Symbols and abbreviations a Radius of a spherical garnet crystal - BSE Back-scattered electron imaging - C Column vector of (n-1) independent components - D Diffusion coefficient matrix - D ij An element of the diffusion matrix on the i th row and j th column - D * i Tracer diffusion coefficient of component i - D(i) Effective interdiffusion coefficient (EIC) of various components in a multicomponent solution rich in the component i - D(i-j) Interdiffusion coefficient of components i and j in a binary solution - D i (EB) Effective binary diffusion coefficient of component i in a multicomponent solution - D i (EB:Ideal) D i (EB) under condition of ideal thermodynamic mixing of the diffusing species - D i (EB:thermo) Thermodynamic component of D i(EB) - D O A Interdiffusion coefficient at peak temperature T 0 in the phase A - D 0 Pre-exponential factor in an Arrhenius relation - EBDC Effective binary diffusion coefficient between a solute and a multicomponent solvent matrix - FEC Fixed edge composition model - EIC Effective interdiffusion coefficient - f i Fugacity of component i - HM Hematite-magnetite oxygen fugacity buffer - kb Kilobars - P Pressure - Q Activation energy (enthalpy) of diffusion - Extent of relaxation defined as the difference between core and rim compositions normalized to the same difference in the initial zoning profile - R Gas constant - s Cooling rate - T 0, T Ch Peak temperature and characteristic temperature, respectively - t Time - VEC Variable edge composition model - V + Activation volume - W ij Simple mixture interaction parameter between i and j - W i(EB) Effective simple mixture interaction parameter of a component i in a multicomponent solution - ij Margules interaction parameter between i and j - X i Mole fraction of component i - i Activity coefficient of component i - A dimensionless variable =D t/a 2 - ij Kronecker delta (i=j, ij =1; ij, ij =0) - Zi Charge on the ion i  相似文献   

8.
Magnesium self-diffusion coefficients were determined experimentally for diffusion parallel to each of the three crystallographic directions in natural orthoenstatite (En88Fs12). Experiments were conducted at 1 atm in CO-CO2 gas mixing furnaces, which provided oxygen fugacities equivalent to the iron-wüstite buffer. Diffusion of 25Mg was induced in polished samples of oriented orthoenstatite using a film of isotopically enriched 25MgO as the source material. Very short (<0.15 μm) diffusional penetration profiles were measured by ion microprobe depth profiling. The diffusion coefficients determined for four temperatures (900, 850, 800, 750 °C) provide the activation energies, E a , and frequency factors, D o, where D = D o exp (−E a /RT) for Mg self-diffusion parallel to each crystallographic direction: a-axis, E a  = 360 ± 52 kJ/mole and D o = 1.10 × 10−4 m2/s; b-axis, E a  = 339 ± 77 kJ/mole and D o = 6.93 × 10−6 m2/s and c-axis, E a  = 265 ± 66 kJ/mole and D o = 4.34 × 10−9 m2/s. In this temperature range, any possible anisotropy of cation diffusion is very small, however the activation energy for diffusion parallel to the c-axis (001) is the lowest and the activation energies for diffusion parallel to the a-axis (100) and b-axis (010) are higher. Application of these diffusion results to the silicate phases of the Lowicz mesosiderite meteorite provides cooling rates for the silicate portion of the meteorite (4–11 °C/100 years) that are similar, although slower, to previous estimates. These silicate cooling rates are still several orders of magnitude faster than the cooling rates (0.1 °C/106 years) for the metal portions. Received: 22 January 1997 / Accepted: 2 October 1997  相似文献   

9.
The paper contains the results of extensive single-point hot-wire and resistance-thermometer measurements in a wall jet on a heated concave wall with an external free stream. It is found that the turbulence in the inner (wall) and outer layers is sensitive to the distortion produced by the curved wall, broadly confirming current views of these effects. The effect on the turbulence of streamline curvature is stabilising in the outer layer, destabilising in the inner. Consequently the point of zero shear stress is closer to the point of maximum mean velocity than in flat and convex wall jets with which these new results are compared. The rate of growth is about 80% of that of the equivalent flat wall flow, and about half that of the convex wall flow. Changes in the wall shear stress and heat flux, which are increased relative to the flat wall flow, are significant but less than the changes in the corresponding convex wall flow. The greatest changes occur in the triple products.List of Symbols c f skin friction coefficient, 2 w / U M 2 - q 2 u 2 +v 2+w 2 - R radius of curvature of wall - r radius of curvature - St Stanton number,-q w /c p U M (T –T w ) - T mean temperature - U streamwise mean velocity - U J initial wall-jet velocity - U 1 initial free-stream velocity - U 0 U M –U PW - u, v, w fluctuating velocity components - x, y distances measured along and normal to the wall - y 0.5,y M wall-jet thicknesses defined in the text - y S ,y T wall-jet thicknesses defined in the text - T T W –T - shear-layer thickness - 2 momentum thickness - temperature fluctuation - M point of maximum velocity - P potential flow - s point of zero shear stress - W wall value - free stream value  相似文献   

10.
The abundant documentation of small mammals in the Italian peninsula, collected over recent years, furnishes a detailed biochronological sequence mainly from the Late Pliocene onwards. An updated stratigraphic framework is here presented, based on the European small mammal biozonation. The Early Villanyian is characterized by Mimomys hassiacus, M. stehlini, and, later, poorly documented M. polonicus. The Late Villanyian localities are well characterized with M. pliocaenicus, M. pitymyoides and M. tigliensis. The older part of the Early Biharian is documented by assemblages containing Microtus (Allophaiomys) ex gr. pliocaenicus, M. pusillus, M. cf. ostramosensis and M. tornensis, while the later part of the Early Biharian, is characterized by advanced Microtus (Allophaiomys) species occurring together with M. pusillus or M. blanci. In the Late Biharian M. savini, Microtus hintoni-gregaloides, Microtus (Iberomys) ex gr. huescarensis-brecciensis and Terricola arvalidens occur. The Early Toringian with A. mosbachensis, Allocricetus bursae, Pliomys episcopalis and small-sized Microtus brecciensis, and the Late Toringian with A. terrestris in diversified associations are quoted. The most important faunal events are calibrated by independent chronological controls, thanks to the record of small mammals from lacustrine deposits. Several figures illustrate the most significant rodent species occurring in the succession of selected Italian localities.  相似文献   

11.
Fossil spores and pollen have long been recognized as valuable tools for identifying and correlating coal beds. This paper describes the palynology of late Middle Pennsylvanian coal beds in the Appalachian Basin with emphasis on forms that assist both intra- and interbasinal coal bed correlation.Stratigraphically important palynomorphs that originate in late Middle Pennsylvanian strata include Torispora securis, Murospora kosankei, Triquitrites minutus, Cadiospora magna, Mooreisporites inusitatus, and Schopfites dimorphus. Taxa that terminate in the late Middle Pennsylvanian include Radiizonates difformis, Densosporites annulatus, Dictyotriletes bireticulatus, Vestispora magna, and Savitrisporites nux. Species of Lycospora, Cirratriradites, Vestispora, and Thymospora, as well as Granasporites medius, Triquitrites sculptilis, and T. securis end their respective ranges slightly higher, in earliest Late Pennsylvanian age strata.Late Middle Pennsylvanian and earliest Late Pennsylvanian strata in the Appalachian Basin correlate with the Radiizonates difformis (RD), Mooreisporites inusitatus (MI), Schopfites colchesterensis–S. dimorphus (CP), and Lycospora granulata–Granasporites medius (GM) spore assemblage zones of the Eastern Interior, or Illinois Basin. In the Western Interior Basin, these strata correlate with the middle-upper portion of the Torispora securis–Laevigatosporites globosus (SG) and lower half of the Thymospora pseudothiessenii–Schopfites dimorphus (PD) assemblage zones. In western Europe, late Middle Pennsylvanian and earliest Late Pennsylvanian strata correlate with the middle-upper portion of the Torispora securis–T. laevigata (SL) and the middle part of the Thymospora obscura–T. thiessenii (OT) spore assemblage zones. Allegheny Formation coal beds also correlate with the Torispora securis (X) and Thymospora obscura (XI) spore assemblages, which were developed for coal beds in Great Britain.  相似文献   

12.
Assessments of inorganic elemental speciation in seawater span the past four decades. Experimentation, compilation and critical review of equilibrium data over the past forty years have, in particular, considerably improved our understanding of cation hydrolysis and the complexation of cations by carbonate ions in solution. Through experimental investigations and critical evaluation it is now known that more than forty elements have seawater speciation schemes that are strongly influenced by pH. In the present work, the speciation of the elements in seawater is summarized in a manner that highlights the significance of pH variations. For elements that have pH-dependent species concentration ratios, this work summarizes equilibrium data (S = 35, t = 25°C) that can be used to assess regions of dominance and relative species concentrations. Concentration ratios of complex species are expressed in the form log[A]/[B] = pH - C where brackets denote species concentrations in solution, A and B are species important at higher (A) and lower (B) solution pH, and C is a constant dependent on salinity, temperature and pressure. In the case of equilibria involving complex oxy-anions (MO x (OH) y ) or hydroxy complexes (M(OH) n ), C is written as pK n = -log K n or pK n * = -log K n * respectively, where K n and K n * are equilibrium constants. For equilibria involving carbonate complexation, the constant C is written as pQ = -log(K 2 l K n [HCO3 -]) where K 2 l is the HCO3 - dissociation constant, K n is a cation complexation constant and [HCO3 -] is approximated as 1.9 × 10-3 molar. Equilibrium data expressed in this manner clearly show dominant species transitions, ranges of dominance, and relative concentrations at any pH.  相似文献   

13.
The variation and anisotropy in hydraulic conductivity and the coefficient of consolidation was investigated for two Swedish sulphide clays. A series of constant rate of strain oedometer tests was performed on samples trimmed in the vertical and horizontal direction. A methodology to evaluate the horizontal coefficients of consolidation c h via the horizontal hydraulic conductivity k h and the vertical compression modulus M v is proposed. Laboratory evaluations of c h are also compared with determinations of c h from in situ piezometer measurements in vertically drained sulphide clay. Furthermore, the validity of the empirical correlation between hydraulic conductivity change index C k and initial void ratio e 0, C k  = 0.5e 0 (Tavenas et al. in Can Geotech J 20(4):645–660, 1983b), was investigated for the sulphide clays. The results from the investigation show large ranges in measured hydraulic conductivities and coefficients of consolidation. However, the results indicate that the correlation C k  = 0.5e 0 is valid. The anisotropy in hydraulic conductivity and the coefficient of consolidation of the sulphide clays tested seems to be small. For design purposes, multiple tests for assessment of hydraulic conductivity and the coefficient of consolidation should be made, and a partial factor of safety, depending on the requisite level of safety and the spatial variability of the parameters, should be introduced. For design purposes in this type of clay, k h  = k v and c h  = c v are suggested.  相似文献   

14.
The lower part of the Pawpaw Shale in northeast Texas yields an abundance of diminutive limonitic ammonites, the assemblage being: Tetragonites sp. juv., Engonoceras serpentinum (Cragin, 1900), Conlinites wrighti gen. et sp. nov., Cantabrigites wenoensis (Adkins, 1920), Neophlycticeras (Neophlycticeras) sp., Neophlycticeras (Paradolphia) occidentalis sp. nov., Stoliczkaia (Stoliczkaia) clavigera Neumayr, 1875, Stoliczkaia (Lamnayella) worthense (Adkins, 1920), Stoliczkaia (Shumarinaia) asiatica Matsumoto and Inoma, 1975, Enigmaticeras riceae gen. et sp. nov., Flickia simplex Pervinquière, 1907, Ficheuria pernoni Dubourdieu, 1953, Ficheuria americana sp. nov., Anisoceras armatum (J. Sowerby, 1817), Hamites venetzianus Pictet, 1847, Mariella (Mariella) worthensis (Adkins and Winton, 1920), Mariella (Mariella) asper sp. nov., Lechites (Lechites) comanchensis (Adkins, 1920), Worthoceras worthense (Adkins, 1920), and Scaphites hilli Adkins and Winton, 1920.This assemblage is correlated with the Mortoniceras (Subschloenbachia) rostratum Subzone of the European sequence on the basis of the occurrence of that species in the underlying Weno Limestone, in the passage beds between the Pawpaw Shale and the succeeding Main Street Limestone, and the lower part of the Main Street.Some previous authors have interpreted the diminutive limonitic ammonites of the Pawpaw as being “dwarf” or “stunted”. The overwhelming majority of individuals are nuclei of much larger ammonites, with smaller numbers of adults of small species that occur in other facies and geographic locations, together with a smaller number still of paedomorphic dwarfs. The fauna is interpreted as a preservational one, where diagenetic pyrite formed in relatively small voids, either the early phragmocone chambers of larger ammonites, or the phragmocone and body chambers of genuinely diminutive species which oxidised to limonite during the weathering process.  相似文献   

15.
The strain associated with the Horn Head Slide, a major tectonic break in the Dalradian rocks of NW Ireland, is recorded by pebbles in an adjacent quartzite horizon. Mean X/Y ratios of the deformed pebble shapes in excess of 8.0 are seen closest to the slide and the field of three-dimensional shapes lies along the K = 1 line. The usual methods of separating initial shape ratio (Ri) and tectonic strain ratio (Rs) from the deformed shape ratio (Rf) of ellipsoidal markers are based on measurements of variation in fluctuation (e.g., the (Rf/φ technique). However, due to the high X/Y strains in this situation and since the pebbles initially lay parallel to bedding and to a principal plane of the finite strain ellipsoid, fluctuation is generally very low. Thus, except for the least deformed X/Y data, the Rf/φ technique is inapplicable and other methods are used. For X/Y data with mean (Rf > 4.0: Rs is calculated as the harmonic mean of Rf; maximum Ri values only are obtained from the range of Rf data. For all Y/Z and X/Z data: Ri is calculated from the logarithmic range (ωlog) of Rf; Rs is simply obtained from the geometric mean of Rf modified by Ri. It is concluded from this that a varying prolate tectonic strain (K - 1.5) reaching X/Y values in excess of 8.00 was coaxially superimposed on an initial oblate shape fabric to produce the present field of deformed pebbles in the quartzite near the slide.  相似文献   

16.
Summary Hydrofracture Mechanisms in Rock During Pressure Grouting. The paper examines the basic meachnisms controlling the initiation of fractures in rocks and layered soils during pressure grouting, and their subsequent propagation into the ground mass. Previous analyses of fracture initiation have tended to concentrate on simplified models in which the ground is treated as an impervious elastic or Mohr-Coulomb continuum. The present method allows for the porous or fissured nature of the ground by considering the effect of seepage forces induced by the pore pressure gradient. The effect is quantified by use of a parameterN such that the ratio of fluid force used in expanding the injection hole, to that used in forcing fluid through void spaces, isN to (1—N).Analysis of hydrofracture propagation is based on stress analysis of a borehole in an elastic continuum, the propagating fracture zone around the borehole being represented as a non-elastic material governed by the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion. This is supplemented by an energy approach which equates the energy supplied to the ground from the injection pump, with the energy stored in the ground and the energy necessary to fracture it.
Zusammenfassung Brucherscheinungen im Fels bei Verprearbeiten. In der Arbeit wird der grundlegende Mechanismus untersucht, welcher bei Verpreßarbeiten in Fels und geschichtetem Boden zur Einleitung und Ausbreitung von Brüchen führt. Frühere Untersuchungen des Bruchbeginns stützten sich im wesentlichen auf vereinfachte Modelle, in denen der Untergrund als undurchlässiges Kontinuum angesehen wird, das entweder elastisch ist oder der Mohr-Coulombschen Bruchbedingung genügt. Die neue Methode berücksichtigt dagegen eine Porosität oder Klüftung des Untergrundes durch Ansatz der vom strömenden Medium auf das Gebirge ausgeübten Belastung. Diese Belastung wird aufgeteilt in einen Druckverlust an der Bohrlochwand (gleich ParameterN mal Verpreßdruck) und die entsprechende, über den gesamten durchströmten Bereich verteilte Belastung.Die Untersuchung der Bruchausbreitung geht von der Spannungsermittlung um ein Bohrloch in einem elastischen Kontinuum aus, wobei in der sich ausbreitenden Bruchzone um das Bohrloch herum nichtelastisches Material angenommen wird, das dem Mohr-Coulombschen Bruchkriterium genügt. Zur Ergänzung dient eine Energie-Betrachtung, bei der die von der Injektionspumpe abgegebene Energie gleichgesetzt wird der im Untergrund gespeicherten Energie und der aufgewendeten Brucharbeit.
Résumé Les mécanismes de la fracturation hydraulique dans les roches pendant les injections sous pression. Le mémoire examine les mécanismes fondamentaux qui gouvernent l'initiation des ruptures dans les roches et les sols stratifiés, au cours des injections et leur propagation dans les massifs. Les analyses antérieures de l'initiation de la rupture, se sont concentrées sur des modèles simplifiés où l'on considérait la roche comme un milieu élastique et imperméable, ou comme un milieu de Mohr-Coulomb. La présente méthode admet que le massif est poreux ou fissuré, en considérant l'action des forces de percolation engendrées par le gradient de pression interstitielle. Cette action est quantifiée par un paramètreN, tel que le rapport de la force du liquide employée à dilater le forage d'injection, à celle employée pour forcer le coulis à travers les vides soitN/(1—N). L'analyse de la propagation des ruptures se base sur l'analyse des contraintes autour d'un forage dans un milieu élastique, alors que la zone de la rupture qui se propage autour du forage est représentée par un milieu non-élastique admettant le critère de rupture de Mohr-Coulomb. Cette analyse est complétée par une approche énergétique, où l'énergie qui est fournie au massif par la pompe d'injection est égalée à l'énergie emmagasinée dans la roche et à l'énergie de rupture.
Nomenclature A area of new cracks created per unit volume of time t - E total work done by injection fluid - E i irrecoverable component of energy - E i c work done in fracturing rock or soil - E i l work done to overcome various frictional forces in grouting system - E i p work done to cause plastic deformation of fractured zone - E i s work done to overcome shear strength of fluid during flow - E i v work done to overcome frictional drag between fluid and rock in soil surfaces during flow - E r recoverable component of energy - E r f elastic strain energy stored in fluid - E r s elastic strain energy stored in rock or soil - h height of overburden - i j 1, 2, 3 - K 0 coefficient of horizontal earth pressure - k permeability of ground to grout - L length of cylindrical grout source - n rock or soil porosity - p average fluid pressure between timet and (t + t) - p 0 injection pressure - R radius of grout front - r radial distance from borehole axis - r 0 radius of borehole - r 1 radius of fractured zone - S specific surface area of rock or soil - S T tensile strength of rock or soil - t time - u grout seepage velocity - V volume of grout injected - v volumetric strain - specific surface energy of rock - bulk density of rock or soil - i j e elastic strain increment tensor - i j plastic strain increment tensor - v Poisson's ratio - i j average stress tensor in the ground during timet and (t + t) - R , T, Z radial, tangential and vertical stresses induced by grouting - r , t , z radial, tangential and vertical stress around borehole before grouting - grout shear strength - angle of internal friction of rock or soil With 7 Figures  相似文献   

17.
Assuming a relation of “b” to stress state, the possibility of globe-wide stress variation and transmission was investigated. The NOAA earthquake data file served to determine the temporal change in “b” of log N = a − bM from 1963 to 1975.Periods of six to eight years are observed in the b-values (stress pattern) for most circum-Pacific areas (South America, Tonga, Kermadec, New Hebrides, Kamchatka and Eastern Aleutians).In the Kurils, fore- and aftershock sequences of large earthquakes seem to mask any characteristic global pattern that might exist. These sequences exhibit low b-values (high stress) through the time of foreshocks and early stages of aftershocks, followed by rapid increase in b-values (decrease in stress).Use of a worldwide earthquake data file clearly yields less resolution of the temporal “b” variation than the use of local network studies published by other authors.Incidental to the study, 1124 earthquakes of the NOAA data file yield the Ms − mb relations: Ms = 1.16mb − 0.835 for 4.5 mb 6 and: log10Ms = 0.1432mb − 0.0629 formb > 6 with correlative coefficients of 0.994 and 0.992 respectively.  相似文献   

18.
Three-phase NaCl-H2O fluid inclusions featuring halite dissolution temperature（Tm）higher than vapor bubble disappearance temperature（Th） are commonly observed in porphyry copper/molybdenum deposits,skarn-type deposits and other magmatic- hydrothermal ore deposits.Based on |ΔV1|（the absolute value of volume variation of NaCl-H2O solution in a heating or cooling process of inclusions）= |ΔVs|（the absolute value of volume variation of the halite crystal in a heating or cooling process of inclusions） and on the principle of conservation of the mass of NaCl and H2O,we systematically calculated the densities of NaCl-H2O solutions in the solid-liquid two-phase field for temperatures（Th） from 0.1℃ to 800℃ and salinities from 26.3 wt%to 99.2wt%.Consequently for the first time we obtained the upper limit of the density of NaCI-H2O solutions in the solid-liquid twophase field for Tbm inclusions with variant salinities.The results indicate that for inclusions of the Thm type with the same Th,the higher the Tm or salinity is,the higher the density of the NaClsaturated solution will be.If a group of fluid inclusions were homogeneously trapped,they must have the same Th value and the same Tm or salinity value.This may be used to distinguish homogeneous,inhomogeneous,and multiple entrapments of fluid inclusions.  相似文献   

19.
We have made use of the nearly complete linear polarization of synchrotron radiation to study the polarization dependence of X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) and extended fine structure (EXAFS) in oriented single crystals of gillespite (BaFe2+ Si4O10; Fe2 + in square-planar coordination, point symmetry C 4), anatase (TiO2; Ti4+ in octahedral coordination, point symmetry D 2d), and epidote (Ca2(Al, Fe3+)3SiO4)3(OH); Fe3+ in distorted octahedral coordination, point symmetry (C s). For gillespite, the Fe K-XANES spectrum varies strongly with E-vector orientation of the incident X-ray beam. When the E-vector lies in the plane of the FeO4 group (i.e., perpendicular to the c-axis), multiple-scattering features at 7127 and 7131 eV intensify, whereas when the E-vector is perpendicular to the plane of the FeO4 group (i.e., parallel to the c-axis), a strongly-polarized 1s to 4p bound state transition occurs at 7116 eV and a localized continuum resonance occurs at 7122 eV. The Fe-K-EXAFS spectrum of gillespite is also highly polarization dependent. When the E-vector is perpendicular to c, all four nearest-neighbor oxygens around Fe2+ contribute to the EXAFS signal; when E is parallel to c, the EXAFS signal from nearest-neighbors is reduced by at least 86%. The unpolarized Ti K-XANES spectrum of anatase has three relatively strong pre-edge features at 4967.1, 4969.9, and 4972.7 eV which have resisted definitive interpretation in past studies. The lowest energy feature has a strong xy polarization dependence, suggesting a large amount of 4p x,y character, and it is also very sharp, indicating a well-defined transition energy. Both of these observations are consistent with an excitonic state with a binding energy of 2.8 eV. The two higher energy features, which are characteristic of octahedrally-coordinated Ti4+, show little polarization dependence and are probably due to 1s to 3d bound-state transitions, with a small degree of np character in the final state wavefunction. Interpretation of the polarization dependence of Fe K-XANES spectra for epidote is not as straightforward due to the lower space group symmetry (P21/m) relative to gillespite (P4/ncc) and anatase (I41/amd) and the lower point group symmetry (C s) of the M(3) site which contains most of the Fe3+ in the epidote structure. However, the presence of a shoulder at 7121 eV in the E parallel to b spectrum and its absence in the E normal to bc spectrum are consistent with it being a 1s to 4p z bound-state transition. Strong, weakly x, y polarized features near 7126 eV in both spectra are most likely due to localized continuum transitions. Also, the 1s to 3d pre-edge intensity varies in intensity with E-vector orientation which is consistent with displacement of Fe3+ from the center of the M(3) octahedral site. Analysis of EXAFS spectra of epidote in these two polarizations yields bond distances which are within 0.04 Å of previous single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. This study demonstrates the utility of polarized X-ray absorption spectroscopy in quantifying the energies and orbital compositions of final state wavefunctions associated with various X-ray induced transitions in transition-metal containing minerals. It also shows that reasonably accurate M-O distances can be obtained for individual bonds oriented in crystallographically non-equivalent directions.  相似文献   

20.
A new superstructure was found in bafertisite [(Ba0.98Na0.02)1.00(Fe1.71Mn0.26Mg0.01)1.98 TiO[(Si1.82Ti0.04Al0.03Cr0.01)1.90O7](OH1.40F0.53Cl0.03)1.96] from Donghai County, Jiangsu Province, China. The occurrence of the superstructure reflections were observed by single crystal diffraction using a SMAR APEX CCD. The a*, b*and c* axis directions revealed extra weak reflection spots of the superstructure. The apparent 2a, 2b and 2c superstructure is monoclinic with unit cell a＝10.6502(15)?, b＝13.7233(19)?, c＝21.6897(3)?, α＝90o, β＝94.698(3)o, γ＝90o,space group Cm,Z=16. If c* extra weak reflections are ignored, the secondary supercell gave a cell a＝10.6548(15)?, b＝13.7284(19)?, c＝11.6900(17)?, α＝90o, β＝112.322(28)o, γ＝90o,space group Cm,Z=8. The basic subcell was obtained by ignoring all extra weak reflection spots and gave: a＝5.3249(17)?, b＝6.8669(22)?, c＝10.8709(36)?, α＝90o, β＝94.740(62)o, γ＝90o,space P21/m,Z=2. The superstructure has been refined to R = 0.063 for 7805 [R(int) = 0.0266] unique reflections I>2δ(I). The structure consists of an octahedra (O) sheet sandwiched between two heteropolyhedral (H) sheets. These sheets consist of Ti–octahedra and twin tetrahedral disilicate groups [Si2O7]. The O sheet comprises (Fe,Mg)O4 octahedra. The large Ba cation is located in the interlayer area. The refined structure shows Fe, Mg are partly ordered. The shifting of the TiO6 octahedron and SiO4 tetrahedron sites in the sheet may be a consequence of the superstructure.  相似文献   

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