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1.
Geological events, such as emplacement of granite or growth of slaty cleavage, may be ordered into a sequence by two methods. One is to assign each event a place in a time scale, such as years before the present, which amounts to assigning events an age designation from the set of real numbers. In ordering such a list, the algebra of real numbers applies. A second method is to determine the time relations of events in pairs, such as a fold is of type (S1, S2) or granite intrudes conglomerate. These binary relations between events may be used to order events into a sequence using the transitive properties of the relation “older than.” It is shown, however, that the binary relations between events do not follow the familiar rules for the algebra of real or integral numbers and it is necessary to erect a new system of relations called the “algebra of events.” The fundamental relation is “older than or equivalent to” and this may be used to define the relations “older than”, “younger than”, “equivalent to”, “incomparable to”, and “covers.” The essential difference from the algebra of integers is that the reflexive relation (“equal to”) is replaced by two such relations (“equivalent to” and “incomparable to”) in the algebra of events. A number of binary relations between events may be assembled into an event matrix which is basically a truth table for the relation “older than.” This may be ordered and stacked by operations termed ORDER and STACK. The relationship of each event to every other event may be determined by simple inspection of an ordered, stacked matrix, and from this a geological history may be assembled. If there are contradictions in the field data, ordering into a proper sequence is impossible and may be detected. If there are ambiguities in the field data, there are several different orders that are proper sequences so that the event matrix may be ordered. However, the ambiguities occur as voids in the stacked matrix.  相似文献   

2.
This study was made to revise the taxonomy and biostratigraphy of Middle Cambrian trilobites from Montana and Wyoming. Both numerical and conventional analyses were made of the taxonomic and biostratigraphic data. Numerical taxonomy was performed on a sample of 210 OTU's (Operational Taxonomic Units) using 66 characters which were determined on cranidia of Middle Cambrian ptychopariid trilobites. These characters consisted of linear measurements which were transformed to indices proportional to glabellar length, quantitative-qualitative shape or angle measurements, and multistate attributes. The similarity coefficients calculated were average taxonomic distances and Pearson's product-moment correlation coefficient. The matrices of similarity coefficients were clustered by single-linkage and unweighted pair-group algorithms. The coordinates of OTU's in a three-dimensional A-space defined by the first three principal axes also were calculated. A phenogram of the distance matrix clustered by UPGMA (which yielded the highest cophenetic correlation coefficient) and a three-dimensional pin-and-ball model were used to interpret the trilobite taxonomy. Insufficiently clear clustering in both representations of taxonomic structure necessitated also a conventional taxonomic study guided by the numerical phenetics. Numerical biostratigraphy was performed with 79 collections as OTU's and 43 trilobite genera as characters. Jaccard coefficients were used as similarity coefficients, and the results were clustered by UPGMA. The resultant phenogram was readily interpretable, and seven faunal assemblage zones (Albertella, Glossopleura, Ehmaniella, Bolaspis-Glyphaspis, Ehmania, Parehmania, and Bolaspidella)are defined for the Middle Cambrian in the study area. Two of the zones (Ehmaniellaand Parehmania)are new and replace part of the previously defined “Bathyuriscus-Elrathina”zone. Bolaspis-Glyphaspis, Ehmania,and Parehmaniazones may have only regional validity.  相似文献   

3.
Macrozooplankton were sampled bi-weekly from October 1969 through May 1973 at 16 stations. Hydrological measurements, including water temperature and conductivity, accompanied each biological sample. Sampling sites and species were grouped by cluster analysis using Camberra-Metric measure of dissimilarity and flexible sorting. Two major seasons, based on taxon composition and abundance, were identified: A warm season (average water temperature above 22°C) dominated by larval and juvenile crustaceans, and a cool season with an abundance of larval fishes. Sites were more similar to each other within a year than they were between years. Differences between years correlated with variations in salinity and temperature. Community structure indices (Shannon-Weaver diversity, species richness and “evenness”) were applied to the seasonal data. Shannon diversity and “evenness” were positively correlated with each other, but richness values were often negatively correlated with the other two indices.  相似文献   

4.
Landslide risk analysis procedures in this study could evaluate annual landslide risk, and assess the effectiveness of measures. Risk analysis encompassing landslide hazard, vulnerability, and resilience capacity was used to evaluate annual landslide risk. First, landslide spatial, temporal, and area probabilities were joined to estimate annual probability of landslides with an area exceeding a certain threshold in each slope unit. Second, different elements were assigned corresponding values and vulnerabilities to calculate the expected property and life losses. Third, the resilience capacities of communities were calculated based on the scores obtained through community checklists and the weights of items, including “the participation experience of disaster prevention drill,” “real-time monitoring mechanism of community,” “autonomous monitoring of residents,” and “disaster prevention volunteer.” Finally, the annual landslide probabilities, expected losses, and resilience capacities were combined to evaluate annual landslide risk in Shihmen watershed. In addition, annual risks before and after the implementation of measures were compared to determine the benefits of measures, and subsequently benefit–cost analysis was performed. Communities with high benefit–cost ratios included Hualing, Yisheng, Siouluan, and Gaoyi. The watershed as a whole had a benefit–cost ratio far greater than 1, indicating the effectiveness of measures was greater than the investment cost. The results of factor sensitivity analysis revealed changes in vulnerabilities and mortality rates would increase the uncertainty of risk, and that raise in annual interest rates or reduction in life cycle of measures would decrease the benefit–cost ratio. However, these changes did not reverse the cost-effective inference.  相似文献   

5.
A simple model for the dynamics of stars located in a sphere with a radius of one-tenth of the central parsec, designed to enable estimation of the probability of capture in the close vicinity (r < 10?3 pc) of a supermassive black hole (SMBH) is presented. In the case of binary stars, such a capture with a high probability results in the formation of a hyper-velocity star. The population of stars in a sphere of radius <0.1 pc is calculated based on data for the Galactic rotation curve. To simulate the distortion of initially circular orbits of stars, these are subjected to a series of random shock encounters (“kicks”), whose net effect is to “push” these binary systems into the region of potential formation of hyper-velocity stars. The mean crossing time of the border of the close vicinity of the SMBH (r < 10?3 pc) by the stellar orbit can be used to estimate the probability that a binary system is captured, followed by the possible ejection of a hyper-velocity star.  相似文献   

6.
The present study centers on the investigation of surface water quality with the aid of quality indices and explores the application of a multi-objective decision-making method (TOPSIS) in arranging decisions for policy makers on the basis of overall ranking of the sampling locations. A case study has been performed on the Manas River, Assam (India). Water Quality Index (WQI) involving physico-chemical parameters, and heavy metal pollution index (HPI) and contamination index (CI) involving heavy metal influences were employed for water quality assessment. WQI graded two sampling locations “very poor” and all other locations “poor”. HPIs of all the locations were below the critical value of 100, but the CI depicted that two locations were “moderately contaminated”. Risk assessment to human health was done using hazard quotient and hazard index. Cluster analysis (CA) demonstrated site similarity by grouping the relatively more polluted and less polluted (LP) sites into two major clusters. However, there surfaced difficulty in discerning the overall water quality, as all the three quality indices included different parameters and contradicted each other. A multi-objective decision-making tool, TOPSIS was therefore employed for ranking the locations on the basis of their relative pollution levels. The novelty of the study reflects in the identification of the relatively more or relatively less polluted sites within the same cluster in CA by the application of TOPSIS. The study justifies the effectiveness of TOPSIS method in prioritizing decisions in complex scenarios for policy makers.  相似文献   

7.
Stochastic process theory involves integrals of measurable functions over probability measure spaces. One of these is the ensemble space, Ω, whose members are sample functions on Euclidean spaceR k and the other isR k itself. What geostatisticians call the “theory of regionalized variables” is said to based on stochastic theory. A recent paper inMathematical Geology proclaims a distinction between “probabilistic” and “deterministic” geostatistics. The former is said to rely on “ensemble integrals” over Ω and the latter on “spatial integrals” overR k. This study shows that the proposed distinction rests on an arbitrary choice between two estimators for the covariance of a stochastic process; neither is an ensemble integral, both are spatial integrals, and both are Kolmogorov inconsistent. The “deterministic” estimator is identical with that of classical bivariate least-squares regression in which “spatial structure” is of no consequence. This study shows that both stochastic models are suboptimal approximations to the unique nonstationary classical statistical multivariate regression model generated by each sample pattern. The stochastic process model and its “spatial continuity measures,” thus, appear as questionable mathematical embellishments on suboptimal estimates, correspondence with geomorphic reality is tenuous, and estimates are biased and distorted. Various related misconceptions in the paper are also discussed.  相似文献   

8.
Chess-board (“tiled”) microcline crystals from a nepheline-bearing syenite from Ilimaussaq, W. Greenland, were investigated using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and were found to consist of a mosaic of slightly misoriented domains, which bear no obvious relationship to the optical microstructure. Part of the misorientation of most pairs of neighbouring domains involves a small rotation about c. However, some are related to adjacent domains by the albite twin law, the pericline law, or diagonal association. This microcline could have crystallized with triclinic symmetry which could account for the differences between the microstructure of this microcline and M-twinned microcline. Metasomatism may explain both the optical microscope and TEM scale structures of this microcline. Examination of the electron diffraction patterns of areas of microcline which contain both diagonally associated and twinned domains draw attention to the fact that each of the few orientations in an M-twinned crystal is related to one of the other orientations by diagonal association. The formation of common cross-hatch twinned microstructures are discussed with reference to diagonal association.  相似文献   

9.
The conditions for the acceleration of the spatial motions of stars by close-binary supermassive black holes (SMBHs) in galactic nuclei are analyzed in order to derive the velocity distribution for stars ejected from galaxies by such black holes. A close binary system consisting of two SMBHs in circular orbits was subject to a spherically symmetrical “barrage” of solar-mass stars with various initial velocities. The SMBHs were treated as point objects with Newtonian gravitational fields. Models with binary component-mass ratios of 1, 0.1, 0.01, and 0.001 were studied. The results demonstrate the possibility of accelerating neutron stars, stellar-mass black holes, and degenerate dwarfs to velocities comparable to the relative orbital velocities of the binary-SMBH components. In the stage when the binary components are merging due to the action of gravitational-wave radiation, this velocity can approach the speed of light. The most massive binary black-holes (M ? 109M⊙) can also accelerate main-sequence stars with solar or subsolar masses to such velocities.  相似文献   

10.
Hou  Weisheng  Cui  Chanjie  Yang  Liang  Yang  Qiaochu  Clarke  Keith 《Mathematical Geosciences》2019,51(1):29-51

In each step of geological modeling, errors have an impact on measurements and workflow processes and, so, have consequences that challenge accurate three-dimensional geological modeling. In the context of classical error theory, for now, only spatial positional error is considered, acknowledging that temporal, attribute, and ontological errors—and many others—are part of the complete error budget. Existing methods usually assumed that a single error distribution (Gaussian) exists across all kinds of spatial data. Yet, across, and even within, different kinds of raw data (such as borehole logs, user-defined geological sections, and geological maps), different types of positional error distributions may exist. Most statistical methods make a priori assumptions about error distributions that impact their explanatory power. Consequently, analyzing errors in multi-source and conflated data for geological modeling remains a grand challenge in geological modeling. In this study, a novel approach is presented regarding the analysis of one-dimensional multiple errors in the raw data used for model geological structures. The analysis is based on the relationship between spatial error distributions and different geological attributes. By assuming that the contact points of a geological subsurface are decided by the geological attributes related to both sides of the subsurface, this assumption means that the spatial error of geological contacts can be transferred into specific probabilities of all the related geological attributes at each three-dimensional point, which is termed the “geological attribute probability”. Both a normal distribution and a continuous uniform distribution were transferred into geological attribute probabilities, allowing different kinds of spatial error distributions to be summed directly after the transformation. On cross-points with multiple raw data with errors that follow different kinds of distributions, an entropy-based weight was given to each type of data to calculate the final probabilities. The weighting value at each point in space is decided by the related geological attribute probabilities. In a test application that accounted for the best estimates of geological contacts, the experimental results showed the following: (1) for line segments, the band shape of geological attribute probabilities matched that of existing error models; and (2) the geological attribute probabilities directly show the error distribution and are an effective way of describing multiple error distributions among the input data.

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11.
Vertical oscillations of the gas at the outer edge of the accretion disk in a semi-detached binary due to interaction with the stream of matter from the inner Lagrangian point L 1 are considered. Mixing of the matter from the stream from L 1 with matter of the disk halo results in the formation of a system of two diverging shocks and a contact discontinuity, or so-called “hot line”. The passage of matter through the region of the hot line leads to an increase in its vertical velocity and a thickening of the disk at phases 0.7?0.8. Subsequently, the matter moving along the outer edge of the disk also experiences vertical oscillations, forming secondary maxima at phases 0.2?0.4. It is shown that, for systems with component mass ratios of 0.6, these oscillations will be amplified with each passage of the matter through the hotline zone, while the observations will be quenched in systems with component mass ratios ~0.07 and ~7. The most favorable conditions for the flow of matter from the stream through the edge of the disk arise for component mass ratios ~0.62. A theoretical relation between the phases of disk thickenings and the component mass ratio of the system is derived.  相似文献   

12.
This short note presents the results of triclinicity determination of purified K‐feldspars from three spatially related granitic bodies (Kalunga Granodiorite, Watsonville granite, and Elizabeth Creek granite, ECG) in west Herberton, Queensland. The systematic decrease of triclinicity values (as 5 index) with increasing weight percent K2O and differentiation indices, decreasing colour indices, and K/Rb ratios is considered to provide an additional line of evidence for a possible co‐genetic relationship of the intrusives. The second phase of the Elizabeth Creek Granite (ECG II) is a late stage intrusive and its emplacement may explain the close spatial association of ECG members and the economic mineralization in the district.  相似文献   

13.
Twin tunnels are frequently used to address the increasing transportation demands in large cities. To ensure the safety of twin tunnels in close proximity, it is often necessary to take protective measures that have not been well studied. Field monitoring was conducted for a project of twin earth pressure balance shield (EPBS) tunnels in typical soft ground. The preceding tunnel was reinforced by various measures, including trailer bracing, compensation grouting, artificial freezing and scaffold bracing. The entire deformation of the reinforced tunnel was recorded during the succeeding tunnelling process. A three dimensional finite-element method (FEM) model was established to simulate the entire process of twin EPBS tunnelling, particularly the reinforcement measures. The computed deformations of the reinforced tunnel were consistent with the measured data. Furthermore, the stress history and pore pressure of the surrounding soil were analysed to investigate the deformation mechanism of the tunnel. Both the measured and computed results indicate that although the face pressure of the succeeding tunnel was smaller than the earth pressure at rest, the preceding tunnel could still experience an inward horizontal convergence and a deflection away from the succeeding tunnel. These distortion modes were caused by the squeezing effect of the horizontal soil arch in front of the succeeding tunnel face. Finally, convergence and deflection indices were proposed to quantify and assess the effectiveness of the reinforcement measures. The trailer bracing, as an “in-tunnel” reinforcement technique, was found to be the most effective method for controlling tunnel convergence. However, artificial freezing as an “out-tunnel” reinforcement technique led to the largest reductions in tunnel deflection. A combination of both “in-tunnel” and “out-tunnel” reinforcements was recommended.  相似文献   

14.
Costate forms of Lagena (benthonic foraminifer) have been studied in an uppermost Maastrichtian bore-hole core sequence (28 levels) from southern Sweden. Analysis of a large sample shows that consistent assignment to previously described “species” of costate Lagena is not possible. This observation is supported by multivariate analysis of five morphologic variables which indicates that there are no distinct clusters of specimens along principal component axes associated with general size, number of costae, and relationships between roundness of test/length and number of costae. Specimens with a basal ring differ from specimens with an apical spine and those with no basal structure with regard to average number of costae. They also differ from specimens with no basal structure with regard to relationships between roundness of test/length and number of costae. These characters grade into each other thus preventing them from being used as taxonomic criteria.Mean ratios of benthonic foraminifers to total benthonic and planktonic formaminifers determined individually for each level are inversely related to mean relative frequencies of costate Lagena and directly related to mean general sizes of costate Lagena. The benthonic/planktonic ratio has been suggested by other workers to represent a paleobathymetric index across a continental slope and shelf when open marine conditions prevailed. If this were so in the Danish basin at the end of the Cretaceous, costate Lagena would have been relatively less frequent and larger at shallower depths.As a result of the study, the analyzed specimens are considered as representing a single morphospecies of the costate species Lagena sulcata. Between-level variation is regarded as ecophenotypic, and within-level variation as natural biologic variation of no taxonomic significance. A total of about 1000 species of Lagena has been described in the literature which is probably many orders of magnitude too great for a genus with such a simple morphology as Lagena. A revision of the taxonomy of Lagena is, therefore, probably necessary on a wide scale.  相似文献   

15.
Xin Hong  Xinyue Ye 《GeoJournal》2018,83(5):935-947
Weight loss is regarded as a commitment for more and more individuals in the US, since obesity is a prevalent public health issue in this country. The geographic environment in which people live and self-awareness of weight status are believed to play an important role bodyweight management. Thus, understanding the association between geographic settings and the awareness of weight status is vital to sustaining or improving quality of life. With the emergence of vast geotagged social media data sources, the analysis of “geographical awareness” of weight status in the context of geographic settings leads to a new research avenue. In order to fully understand the awareness of weight status and the relation with the geographic environment, our analysis was based on weight loss related “tweets” (messages sent on Twitter) and National Land Cover Dataset. We present our findings obtained from modeling: (1) the geographic patterns of weight-loss-related tweets, and (2) how land cover changes impact the weight loss related cyberspace message activities using cross tabulation. The results of analysis are summarized with tables and graphics.  相似文献   

16.
The “global” representation of the geomagnetic field in terms of ordinary spherical harmonics (SHs) and its corresponding set {g,h} of coefficients has been studied extensively, but the “local” representation in terms of spherical cap harmonics (SCHs) and its corresponding set {G,H} of coefficients is not yet well understood. This paper clarifies some of the main properties of the SCHs and their proper use along with their relationship with the SHs. In particular, it shows that for the spherical cap part of a global field specified by spherical harmonics there is a strict relation between the ordinary Legendre functions of the global representation and the fractional functions of the local expansion; hence we can express the set of coefficients {G,H} in terms of the set {g,h}. Finally, some attention will be given to the role of the leading (n = 0, m = 0) term of the SCH expansion.  相似文献   

17.
《Cretaceous Research》1988,9(3):217-247
Seven local biostratigraphic zones have been distinguished in the Albian and Cenomanian sediments of the Pieniny Klippen Belt: Hedbergella assemblage (Assemblage Zone, AZ), R. subticinensis-R. ticinensis (Concurrent Range Zone, CRZ), R. ticinensis- P. praebuxtorfi (CRZ), R. ticinensis- P. buxtorfi (Partial Concurrent Range Zone, PCRZ), P. buxtorfi- R. appenninica (CRZ), R. appenninica (Partial Range Zone, PRZ) and R. reicheli- R. green-hornensis (PCRZ), The zones are tentatively correlated with the ortho- and parastratigraphic zones of the Albian and Cenomanian. Three palaeoecological associations have been distinguished: “Czorsztyn”, shelf-upper slope, large proportion of nodosarids and miliolids; “Pieniny A” middle part of slope, oligotaxic planktonic assemblages dominant; “Pieniny B”, depth similar to that of “Pieniny A”, larger proportion of agglutinated foraminifers. All fall within the “Marssonella” association sensu Haig, 1979, Haig, 1979. Layers of black shales, interpreted to reflect Cretaceous oceanic anoxic events, are correlated between successions of the Pieniny Klippen Belt, and their biostratigraphical position is determined.  相似文献   

18.
Helium isotope ratios have been measured in geothermal fluids from Iceland, The Geysers, Raft River, Steamboat Springs and Hawaii. These ratios have been interpreted in terms of the processes which supply He in distinct isotopic ratios (i.e. magmatic He, ~10 Ra; atmospheric He, Ra; and crustal He, ~0.1 Ra) and in terms of the processes which can alter the isotopic ratio (hydrologic mixing, U-Th series alpha production and weathering release of crustal He, magma aging and tritiugenic addition of 3He). Using this interpretational scheme, Iceland is found to be an area of hot-spot magmatic He implying an active volcanic source although the data are suggestive of high-temperature weathering release of crustal He incorporated in the geothermal fluids. By comparison to fumarolic gases from Hawaii and Juan De Fuca and Cayman Trench basaltic glass samples, The Geysers contains MOR type magmatic He again implying an active volcanic source possibly a “leaky” transform related to the San Andreas Fault System. Raft River contains only crustal He indicating no active volcanic sources. Steamboat Springs He isotope ratios are distinctly less than typical plate margin volcanics but must still have a magmatic source. A preliminary assessment of the cause for this low ratio is made assuming an “aging” magma source.  相似文献   

19.
The Lower Cretaceous ammonite fauna of Japan was influenced by the Tethyan, Boreal and North Pacific realms with their oceanic current patterns and ammonite distributions. The hypothesis of oceanic circulation can be utilized to interpret the existence of the “Bering Strait” and the changing position of the “Boreal front,” that is the contact region of warm and cold-water masses. To understand such a system fully, a comprehensive understanding of the geographical distribution of ammonite faunas is required. The occurrence of twenty-five ammonite species, belonging to twenty genera, is confirmed in the Barremian to Albian of Japan. Of these, 24 species are described in this paper, including Barremites macroumbilicus sp. nov. The fauna can be divided into three associations, lower, middle, and upper, indicating late Barremian, late Aptian, and late Albian of the European standard zonation. The faunal characters suggest that the habitats of these ammonite faunas may have changed during later Early Cretaceous, with faunas characterizing three different environments, i.e., nearshore, intermediate, and distal shelf to upper slope setting. Ammonites of the lower association (late Barremian) are related to those of the Tethys, Boreal European, and circum-Pacific regions, and suggest that the Early Cretaceous Katsuuragawa Basin was deposited under the influence of currents from both high latitude and equatorial areas. The occurrence of Crioceratites (Paracrioceras) suggests that the Boreal European elements, including Simbirskites and Crioceratites (Paracrioceras), transited between Northwest Europe and Japan through the Arctic Sea, indicating that the Pacific Ocean was connected with the Arctic Sea at that time. The second association (late Aptian) is composed of ammonites of the Tethyan and circum-Pacific regions. As European Boreal ammonite taxa are absent in this association, it is concluded that the Pacific Ocean probably was not connected with the Arctic Sea at the time. Consequently, the “Boreal Front,” marking the contact between warm and cold water masses, was located at mid-latitude in the “Bering Strait” region during Barremian and subsequently moved northward during Albian. The uppermost ammonite association (late Albian) also consists of Tethyan and circum-Pacific taxa. Desmoceras (Pseudouhligella) poronaicum expanded its range with northward and eastward circulation of oceanic currents, suggesting the current must have represented a warm water-mass from the equator. The species subsequently migrated from the southern Katsuuragawa Basin to the Hokkaido area during late to latest Albian.  相似文献   

20.

Recent global warming and more frequent droughts are causing significant damage to maize production. A reliable estimate of drought intensity and duration is essential for testing maize hybrids to drought tolerance. For this purpose, the self-calibrating 10-day palmer drought severity index (scPDSI) and standardized precipitation index (SPI) for 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18, 27, and 36 10-day scales were used to estimate the effects of drought on grain yield of 32 maize hybrids evaluated in 2017 and 2018 at eight experimental locations in the Pannonian part of Croatia. Time series of observed 10-day mean air temperature, relative humidity, and precipitation totals for a set of “reference” weather stations of the croatian meteorological and hydrological service (DHMZ) for the period 1981–2018 were used to calculate the scPDSI and SPI indices. According to the 10-day scPDSI and SPI for different time scales, 2018 proved to be a “normal year,” while 2017 experienced a “mild to moderate drought,” which resulted in a 13% reduction in maize grain yield at eight experimental locations compared to 2018. The correlation between grain yield and drought indices for summer months was the highest for the 10-day scPDSI. To some extent, correlations between summer months’ SPI for the 3 10-day time scale and maize grain yield were comparable to the corresponding correlations for the 10-day scPDSI. However, for other SPI time scales considered, the corresponding correlations were weaker and less informative. The dependence of grain yield on scPDSI values was not the same for all hybrids, indicating their different tolerance to drought. The reduction in grain yield due to drought was primarily caused by insufficient grain filling (lower 1000-grain weight) and, to some extent, by a reduction in the number of grains. In this study, application of 10-day scPDSI data proved to be more relevant in detecting effects of drought on agronomic traits than application of SPI data for the most time scales.

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