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1.
Whaling as a commercial enterprise is now defunct, not least due to the moratorium placed on it by the International Whaling Commission (IWC) almost 20 years ago. However, two distinct groups, one in favor of ‘sustainable’ whaling and one completely opposed to any killing of whales, continue to argue at the IWC and other political arenas. Almost ignored in this debate is the current growth of the whale watching industry, a logical alternative use for whale populations. Based on ecological and socio-economic criteria, the potential for whale watching is estimated for maritime countries that do not currently engage in this industry. Results suggest that whale watching could generate an additional 413 million USD (2009) in yearly revenue, supporting 5,700 jobs. Together with current global estimates, this would bring the total potential for the whale watching industry to over 2.5 billion USD in yearly revenue and about 19,000 jobs around the world. These results are discussed from an economic and conservation policy perspective, with emphasis on potential benefits and limitations. 相似文献
2.
The Japanese government is committed to resuming sustainable commercial whaling, both on the high seas and along the Japanese coastline. To this end scientific whaling programs are supported with public money and the byproducts of the catch are distributed to the public and utilized in a variety of ways. Here we review the policies which govern how these byproducts are disseminated within Japan, as well as how the population as a whole makes use of whale resources. Possibilities for the future, if and when the international moratorium on commercial whaling ends, are also discussed. 相似文献
3.
The contentious whaling dispute can be described as a scientific dispute over resource management, the collision between nations that regard whales as food and nations that see whales as special, political game played by politicians who like to be seen as environmentally conscious by opposing whaling, and economic interests of the whaling industry and fundraising anti-whaling organizations. All of these different interpretations are correct, however, none, by themselves, can explain the whole picture of the controversy. This paper, by constructing a matrix, presents a comprehensive picture of this complex dispute and some options for making a progress. 相似文献
4.
《Marine Policy》2016
Scientific whaling has polarized opinion for decades, and its scientific value has been intensely debated. Here, the output of scientific whaling programs is examined by comparing it to the scientific output pertaining to whales of countries that do not practice scientific whaling. Between 1986 and 2013, whaling and non-whaling countries produced, on average, similar total numbers of publications that were directly relevant to the goals of the scientific whaling permits issued by the International Whaling Commission (IWC), and similar numbers of papers that were relevant to whale ecology and conservation but not directly related to IWC goals. Half of the scientific productivity of scientific whaling countries resulted from non-lethal data collection. One-third of publications by whaling countries were published in peer-reviewed outlets, compared to twice as many for non-whaling countries. Publications by whaling countries were cited ~4 times less often than those of non-whaling countries, with no evidence of citation discrimination against whaling countries since the citation rates of papers that did and did not use lethal sampling were similar. These academic criteria suggest that although the overall volume of science produced by scientific whaling countries is similar to that of non-whaling countries, the quality of the science is not. Arguably, academic criteria are not the best way to assess the usefulness of science for management and conservation, but demonstrating links between the science produced by scientific whaling, its integration in management plans and actions, and shifts towards sustainable exploitation or recovery of whale populations is challenging. 相似文献
5.
Tongans have a long history of interaction with humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) ranging from imbuing whales with religious and cultural significance to commercial exploitation, originally through hunting and later through whale watching and swimming activities. Excessive commercial harvesting, mostly outside of Tongan waters, means that the number of humpback whales in the Oceania region remains low despite a ban on commercial harvesting since 1978. Concurrently, the opportunity for fee paying tourists to swim with this endangered population is a significant source of income for the Kingdom of Tonga. The Ha'apai island group has until recently experienced only a low density of whale focused tourism compared to the Vava'u island group, but it is showing signs of significant expansion. Photographs of the animals using the Ha'apai region identified a maximum of 331 unique individuals over the period 2006-2010, which generated 26 resightings of 22 individuals. In light of the low whale numbers and the industry expansion it is an appropriate time to implement a precautionary management system in the region. This is particularly important if, as suggested here, individual humpback whales are moving through all Tongan waters meaning management changes in one area impact on the entire population. Options to minimise the impact on these animals include limiting the number of licences issued for Ha'apai and zoning activities to ensure that there are areas closed to whale watching/swimming that can act as a refuge for the animals. 相似文献
6.
D. E. Gaskin 《新西兰海洋与淡水研究杂志》2013,47(2):260-272
Sighting and catch data on sperm whales accumulated during a whale survey by the New Zealand Marine Department and whaling operations by the Tory Channel whaling company in 1963–4 were examined. The results showed a unimodal rise and fall in numbers of sperm whales in the Cook Strait region throughout the year. From a peak between December and April whale numbers declined steadily until November, when they rose again sharply. It is suggested from these results that the best choice for an eight‐month sperm whaling season would be one extending from November to July. It was concluded that the mean speed of sperm whales in the area was not likely to exceed 1 knot. 相似文献
7.
Video taken by Greenpeace of whaling by the Japanese whaling fleet in the Southern Ocean provided a unique opportunity to obtain quantitative data relevant to the welfare aspects of the killing of whales. Catches of 16 individual Antarctic minke whales (Balaenoptera bonaerensis) were analysed and in two of these asphyxiation appeared the most likely cause of death. Fewer than one in five whales were killed instantaneously and the average time to death for the remaining whales was around 10 min. The presence of Greenpeace did not result in a reduced accuracy of harpoon shots when compared with previous studies. 相似文献
8.
Phillip J. Clapham Simon Childerhouse Nicolas J. Gales Lorenzo Rojas-Bracho Michael F. Tillman Robert L. Brownell Jr. 《Marine Policy》2007
Morishita's “multiple analysis” of the whaling issue [Morishita J. Multiple analysis of the whaling issue: Understanding the dispute by a matrix. Marine Policy 2006;30:802–8] is essentially a restatement of the Government of Japan's whaling policy, which confuses the issue through selective use of data, unsubstantiated facts, and the vilification of opposing perspectives. Here, we deconstruct the major problems with Morishita's article and provide an alternative view of the whaling dispute. For many people in this debate, the issue is not that some whales are not abundant, but that the whaling industry cannot be trusted to regulate itself or to honestly assess the status of potentially exploitable populations. This suspicion has its origin in Japan's poor use of science, its often implausible stock assessments, its insistence that culling is an appropriate way to manage marine mammal populations, and its relatively recent falsification of whaling and fisheries catch data combined with a refusal to accept true transparency in catch and market monitoring. Japanese policy on whaling cannot be viewed in isolation, but is part of a larger framework involving a perceived right to secure unlimited access to global marine resources. Whaling is inextricably tied to the international fisheries agreements on which Japan is strongly dependent; thus, concessions made at the IWC would have potentially serious ramifications in other fora. 相似文献
9.
《Marine Policy》2015
Since 1987, Japan has conducted extensive special permit whaling (“scientific whaling”) in the Antarctic and North Pacific. This has been viewed by many as a way to circumvent the International Whaling Commission׳s (IWC) moratorium on commercial whaling, which was implemented in 1985. Recently, Australia took Japan to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) over this issue. Using various criteria, the Court ruled that Japan׳s whaling was not “for purposes of scientific research” as required by Article VIII of the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, and ordered Japan to immediately cease its JARPA II whaling program in the Antarctic. Despite optimism that the Court׳s ruling might spell the end of Japanese whaling in the Antarctic and even elsewhere, Japan has indicated that it will redesign its whaling programs and continue operations. Based upon Japan׳s history at the IWC, I argue here that this was an expected outcome; I predict the course of events over the next months, and suggest that the ICJ ruling, while satisfying as an independent vindication of Japan׳s critics, represents little more than a temporary setback for that nation׳s whaling enterprise. 相似文献
10.
Daily charts of the aerial search effort (432 206 nautical miles) of the Union Whaling Company and 1 099 sightings of 10 497 whales were available from 628 flights off Durban between 1972 and 1975. Densities of whales were analysed by month and water depth distribution over the four-year period. Low observed densities of blue Balaenoptera musculus, right Eubalaena australis, sei B. borealis and humpback Megaptera novaeangliae whales most likely resulted from earlier whaling pressure. Seasonality of blue, sei and humpback whales was bimodal, indicative of winter migrations to the north of the Durban whaling grounds, whereas the unimodal seasonality of fin whales B. physalus and minke whales B. bonaerensis or B. acutorostrata suggest the offshore region as the northern terminus of their migrations. Sperm whales Physeter macrocephalus migrate northwards offshore of the KwaZulu-Natal coast in autumn/early winter and southwards in late winter/spring, with larger males migrating later than the smaller males and females. Killer whale Orcinus orca presence was coincident with that of offshore minke whales and the southward migrations of other baleen whales, whereas densities of animals deemed as bottlenose whale Hyperoodon planifrons suggest strong early and late summer seasonal abundance in the offshore region. Such extensive surveys offshore of the KwaZulu-Natal coast are unlikely to be repeated; hence, data-extraction of whaling records provides a valuable source of seasonal and distributional information for marine management. 相似文献
11.
《Marine Policy》2017
As the International Whaling Commission has failed to establish a consensus on the interpretation and enforcement of a moratorium on commercial whaling, the disagreement between Australia and Japan over whaling has recently escalated. Australia, a leading opponent of whaling, questioned Japan's scientific whaling program in the Antarctic at the International Court of Justice (ICJ). The ICJ ruled in 2014 that the Japanese whaling program is unscientific, but Japan revised the program and implemented it after the court ruling. To overcome the current international stalemate regarding whaling, this paper examines the possibility of a bargaining solution to this conflict, particularly through voluntary monetary compensation from Australia to Japan to halt whaling activities. The results of nationwide surveys indicate that Australia's total willingness to pay for the discontinuation of whaling by Japan is significantly greater than Japan's willingness to accept to abandon whaling in the high seas despite a substantial population difference between the two countries. The results suggest that a financial transfer could be a win-win strategy to resolve this long-standing international conflict. 相似文献
12.
Douglas P. DeMaster Andrew W. Trites Phillip Clapham Sally Mizroch Paul Wade Robert J. Small Jay Ver Hoef 《Progress in Oceanography》2006,68(2-4):329
Springer et al. [Springer, A.M., Estes, J.A., van Vliet, G.B., Williams, T.M., Doak, D.F., Danner, E.M., Forney, K.A., Pfister, B., 2003. Sequential megafaunal collapse in the North Pacific Ocean: an ongoing legacy of industrial whaling? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100 (21), 12,223–12,228] hypothesized that great whales were an important prey resource for killer whales, and that the removal of fin and sperm whales by commercial whaling in the region of the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands (BSAI) in the late 1960s and 1970s led to cascading trophic interactions that caused the sequential decline of populations of harbor seal, northern fur seal, Steller sea lion and northern sea otter. This hypothesis, referred to as the Sequential Megafaunal Collapse (SMC), has stirred considerable interest because of its implication for ecosystem-based management. The SMC has the following assumptions: (1) fin whales and sperm whales were important as prey species in the Bering Sea; (2) the biomass of all large whale species (i.e., North Pacific right, fin, humpback, gray, sperm, minke and bowhead whales) was in decline in the Bering Sea in the 1960s and early 1970s; and (3) pinniped declines in the 1970s and 1980s were sequential. We concluded that the available data are not consistent with the first two assumptions of the SMC. Statistical tests of the timing of the declines do not support the assumption that pinniped declines were sequential. We propose two alternative hypotheses for the declines that are more consistent with the available data. While it is plausible, from energetic arguments, for predation by killer whales to have been an important factor in the declines of one or more of the three populations of pinnipeds and the sea otter population in the BSAI region over the last 30 years, we hypothesize that the declines in pinniped populations in the BSAI can best be understood by invoking a multiple factor hypothesis that includes both bottom–up forcing (as indicated by evidence of nutritional stress in the western Steller sea lion population) and top–down forcing (e.g., predation by killer whales, mortality incidental to commercial fishing, directed harvests). Our second hypothesis is a modification of the top–down forcing mechanism (i.e., killer whale predation on one or more of the pinniped populations and the sea otter population is mediated via the recovery of the eastern North Pacific population of the gray whale). We remain skeptical about the proposed link between commercial whaling on fin and sperm whales, which ended in the mid-1960s, and the observed decline of populations of northern fur seal, harbor seal, and Steller sea lion some 15 years later. 相似文献
13.
Anders Goksyr Jon Tarleb Jan Erik Solbakken Jarle Klungsyr 《Marine environmental research》1985,17(2-4)
The whales are an interesting group in several aspects of science, including evolutionary biology, marine ecology and toxicology. Some of the whale species, including the minke whale, graze at the top of the food chains, where they become susceptible to the accumulation of marine pollutants ingested by organisms at lower levels. The northern stock of the minke whale grazes in Arctic waters in the summer, an area of increasing interest in the development of new oil fields. Studies on the metabolism, disposition and effects of xenobiotics in marine mammals are few. The only reports in the open literature so far have dealt with these questions in seals.1–3 Although the marine mammals comprise a particularly interesting group in marine ecology and toxicology, no data have to our knowledge been presented on the xenobiotic metabolising enzyme systems of the whales. In this study, components of the microsomal cytochrome P-450 system were measured in liver samples from several females, one male, and two foetal minke whales, caught in the Norwegian whaling season of 1983. Because of the limited number of samples studied we have treated the samples individually and not performed any statistical analysis of the data. The trends discussed below must therefore be considered with this background. 相似文献
14.
Jan-Olaf Meynecke Elisa Seyboth Jasper De Bie Jan-Lukas Menzel Barraqueta Abdoulkadri Chama Subhra Prakash Dey Serena Blyth Lee Vivitskaia Tulloch Marcello Vichi Ken Findlay Alakendra Narayan Roychoudhury Brendan Mackey 《Marine Ecology》2020,41(6):e12616
Globally, baleen whales were severely depleted by historic whaling. Recovering populations have been observed to alter their behaviour. These changes have been attributed to climate change in some cases and raise concerns over the successful recovery of baleen whale populations. Current data-driven statistical habitat and behavioural models have proven useful for addressing questions of whale distribution changes within their limitations. Given observed changes in oceanic conditions, a new approach to managing baleen whale population recovery is necessary. Model predictions of future whale movements and distributions under climate change scenarios are vital to enable adequate conservation management. This paper presents a new perspective on understanding the impacts of climate change on humpback whales, arguing the need for a system-based multidisciplinary research approach. Our approach includes coupled, mechanistic models based upon robust ecological principles, and integrates key physical, biogeochemical, biological and ecological modules to address long-term changes associated with climate change. To illustrate the need for this system-based multidisciplinary approach, we focus on Southern Hemisphere humpback whales, the recovery of which may be impacted by rapid changes in habitat conditions brought about by anthropogenic climate change. 相似文献
15.
Following the introduction of sea-going factory vessels by Norwegian whalers in the 1926 season, the international whaling industry underwent a large expansion which ultimately resulted in depletion of many valuable stocks of whales. Attempts at conservation under the auspices of the International Whaling Commission met with limited but growing success, until a new management policy was adopted in 1975. By 1980 the killing of most species of baleen whales had been prohibited. The authors review the economic history of pelagic whaling during this period, and present a corresponding economic analysis. A brief survey of mathematical models of the whaling industry is given in the Appendix. 相似文献
16.
Commercial whaling is highly contentious, angering animal rights groups and conservation organizations, who threaten boycotts. Proponents of whaling argue that many whale stocks are plentiful enough to support sustainable harvests. In terms of economic efficiency, a nation's decision to engage in whaling depends on rents from the whaling industry, ecological and market linkages, and the potential for boycotts. We analyze the tradeoffs involved in a nation's decision to engage in whaling, whale-watching, and fishing. Scenarios exist in which whaling is economically rational. Indeed, sometimes it makes economic sense to subsidize whaling. In other circumstances, market pressures make commercial whaling inefficient. 相似文献
17.
This article presents the results of a survey examining the attitudes of young Japanese people towards whaling and its controversies. Using an online and paper-based questionnaire, 529 useable surveys were completed by Japanese students (between 15 and 26 years old) from May to December 2007. Factorial analysis, correlation and regression models were used to identify relational predictors underlying the attitudes of young Japanese people on whaling issues. An approval of whaling exists amongst the participating students, with two constructs standing out as contributing the most to this affirmation; firstly, an approval of the consumption of whalemeat by Japanese children; and secondly, an acceptance of the pro-whaling rhetoric commonly produced by the Government of Japan (GOJ) and associated media. This research represents an initial exploration into the attitudinal structures of Japanese students on whaling issues, contributing to a deeper understanding of the complexities that surround the debate. 相似文献
18.
Japan's delegation to the International Whaling Commission (IWC) must have gone to the 2007 meeting in Anchorage believing that the prospects of at least the commencement of the process leading to the overturning of the moratorium were better than they had been since 1986. The passing of the St. Kitts and Nevis Declaration at the 2006 Meeting, the gathering momentum of their Normalisation agenda, and their own determination to compromise some of their own agenda in the interest of harmony within the IWC, would have formed the basis of this belief. The reality was totally different. There was no compromise by the anti-whaling group within the meeting who also regained the simple majority position which had been lost in 2006. 相似文献
19.
It is widely assumed that a compromise position must be reached between pro- and anti-whaling groupings within the International Whaling Commission. This assumption is based on the belief that the Commission will collapse in the absence of any such compromise, and has been the driving force behind a number of compromise proposals in recent years. This paper argues that the fundamental positions of the two groups are so different, and that both groups are getting enough from the current position as to make it unattractive to either group to make any serious concessions toward a compromise position.The suggested solution is for the two groups to “agree to disagree”; using the resulting improvement in goodwill between them to focus on cooperation on those aspects of whale conservation on which they can agree. 相似文献
20.
《African Journal of Marine Science》2013,35(3):415-427
Estimating numbers of whales present in an area from recorded call rates could be a useful conservation tool. We recorded southern right whale Eubalaena australis vocalisations and presence in Walker Bay on the south coast of South Africa. In all, 45 sessions with synchronous acoustic and visual data were analysed to determine call rates directly (overall call rate, OCR) and in relation to the number of whales sighted (call rate per whale, CPW) and number of groups sighted (call rate per group, CPG). The OCRs were examined in the presence of varying numbers of whales, using a log-linear model to investigate the dependence of the call rate on whale density. The number of whales present exerted a strong quadratic effect on the OCR, which peaked at around 15 whales and decreased to a low rate as whale presence approached a maximum, for all calls combined and for four of their constituent 13 call types: a quadratic trend was present to varying degrees among the remaining call types. Both quadratic and linear trends were absent when OCR was assessed against number of groups present, possibly because group size increased with increasing density of whales. A linear regression on the CPW and CPG suggested that there was a negative inverse relationship with the number of whales and groups present respectively. These findings are important in that, while they preclude the estimation of absolute numbers from call rates, they imply that, under the conditions prevailing in Walker Bay, southern right whales were aware of the presence, arrival and departure of other animals in their vicinity and adjusted their vocal behaviour accordingly. 相似文献