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1.
Summary The dependence of the albedo on illumination direction is analyzed by constructing a canopy model in which the individual leaves are planar, Lambertian reflectors. Leaf transmission is treated separately, and is assumed to be proportional to the cosine of the zenith angle of the leaf normal. Effects of shading and obscuration are formulated assuming random distribution of the leaves with respect to the viewing and illumination directions. Variants of the model with different azimuthal leaf distributions are created and discussed as explicit expressions of the viewing/illumination geometry and the canopy characteristics.The canopy spectral single-scattering albedo factors, which are the conditional probabilities of a photon escaping from the canopy after a first reflection or a first transmission, are obtained by numerical integration over a hemisphere of the bidirectional reflectance and transmittance factors. Our analysis identifies the ratio of the projection of leaf area on the vertical plane perpendicular to the principal plane to that on a horizontal plane as the parameter that controls the dependence of the albedo on the solar zenith angle. The albedo factor due to the leaf transmittance generally increases with the zenith angle of illuminating beam more sharply than that due to the leaf reflectance.Model variants with various azimuthal distributions are compared with measured albedo of soybeans. Second and higher order scatterings are accounted for in a simplified way. The degree to which a model variant fits the measured albedo and its change with the solar zenith angle depends both on the leaf inclination angleand the azimuthal distribution of the leaf area.With 6 Figures 相似文献
2.
The model devised by Lhommeet al. (1988) allows one to calculate the sensible heat flux over a homogeneous crop canopy from radiometric surface temperature by adding a so-called canopy aerodynamic resistance to the classical aerodynamic resistance calculated above the canopy. This model is reformulated in order to simplify the mathematical procedure needed to calculate this additional resistance. Analytical expressions of micrometeorological profiles within the canopy are introduced. Assuming a constant leaf area density, an analytical expression of canopy aerodynamic resistance is inferred, which is a function of wind velocity, inclination angle of the radiometer and crop characteristics such as crop height, leaf area index, inclination index of the foliage and leaf width. Sensitivity of this resistance to the different parameters is investigated. The most significant are wind velocity and LAI. Finally, the predictions of the model are tested against two sets of measurements obtained for two different crops, potato and maize. 相似文献
3.
The projections of leaf areas onto a horizontal plane and onto a vertical plane are examined for their utility in characterizing canopies for sunlight penetration (direct beam only) models. These projections exactly specify the penetration if the projections on the principal plane of the normals to the top surfaces of the leaves are in the same quadrant as the Sun. Inferring the total leaf area from these projections (and therefore the penetration as a function of the total leaf area) is possible only with a large uncertainty (up to ±32%) because the projections are a specific measure of the total leaf area only if the leaf angle distribution is known. It is expected that this uncertainty could be reduced to more acceptable levels by making an approximate assessment of whether the zenith angle distribution is that of an extremophile canopy. An extremophile canopy would have the maximum leaf area possible for given set of projections. Simple leaf projection measurements would then become a practical substitute for detailed measurements of the leaf angle distribution. This is not true if for a fraction of the canopy, the leaf normal projections fall in the non-solar quadrant. In this case, accurate and detailed information about the leaf orientation is required for assessing the penetration; the horizontal and vertical projections are inadequate for this purpose. 相似文献
4.
阿尔卑斯山杉林冠层影响辐射传输的个例分析 总被引：3，自引：1，他引：2
利用瑞士Alptal观测站杉树林冠层上方、下方的辐射观测资料,分析了冠层对短波辐射的减弱及对长波辐射的增幅作用及其季节变化。结果表明,对比较密集的常绿针叶林,冠层对入射短波辐射的透过率随着太阳高度的降低而减小,春季以后趋于稳定;冠层对长波辐射的增幅作用随天气状况而变化,这种增幅作用在晴空条件下最显著,可达1.5倍。在冬季,因为太阳辐射较弱,冠层对长波辐射的增幅作用超过对短波辐射的减弱从而增加地面净辐射。在其它季节,太阳辐射比较强,冠层对短波辐射的减弱超过对长波辐射的增幅作用而减少地面净辐射。地面净辐射与冠层上方气温的变化趋势虽然在有些时段一致,但在伴随降雪过程的降温时段,地面净辐射与气温的变化趋势近乎反相,在积雪融化时段,地面净辐射的增加比气温升高更显著,尤其是在白天。 相似文献
5.
Eddy correlation measurements were made of fluxes of moisture, heat and momentum at a tallgrass prairie site near Manhattan, Kansas, U.S.A. during the First ISLSCP Field Experiment (FIFE) in 1987. The study site is dominated by three C4 grass species: big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), and switchgrass (Panicum virgatum). The stomatal conductance and leaf water potential of these grass species were also measured.In this paper, daily and seasonal variations in the components of the surface energy balance are examined. The aerodynamic and canopy surface conductances for the prairie vegetation are also evaluated.Published as Paper No. 8987, Journal Series, Nebraska Agricultural Research Division.
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6.
A physically-based multi-layer snow model Snow-Atmosphere-Soil-Transfer scheme(SAST)and a land surface model Biosphere-Atmosphere Transfer Scheme(BATS)were employed to investigate how boreal forests influence snow accumulation and ablation under the canopy.Mass balance and energetics of snow beneath a Scots pine canopy in Finland at different stages of the 2003-2004 and 2004 2005 snow seasons are analyzed.For the fairly dense Scots pine forest,drop-off of the canopy-intercepted snow contributes,in some cases,twice as much to the underlying snowpack as the direct throughfall of snow.During early winter snow melting,downward turbulent sensible and condensation heat fluxes play a dominant role together with downward net longwave radiation.In the final stage of snow ablation in middle spring,downward net all- wave radiation dominates the snow melting.Although the downward sensible heat flux is comparable to the net solar radiation during this period,evaporative cooling of the melting snow surface makes the turbulent heat flux weaker than net radiation.Sensitivities of snow processes to leaf area index(LAI)indicate that a denser canopy speeds up early winter snowmelt,but also suppresses melting later in the snow season. Higher LAI increases the interception of snowfall,therefore reduces snow accumulation under the canopy during the snow season;this effect and the enhancement of downward longwave radiation by denser foliage outweighs the increased attenuation of solar radiation,resulting in earlier snow ablation under a denser canopy.The difference in sensitivities to LAI in two snow seasons implies that the impact of canopy density on the underlying snowpack is modulated by interannual variations of climate regimes. 相似文献
7.
Net radiation measurements were made with a traversing system in a 250 cm tall (LAI = 4.0) corn crop with east-west oriented rows. Frequency distributions of flux density of net radiation were plotted using 0.075 cal cm-2 min-1 class intervals. These distributions showed a shift from predominantly sunlit to predominantly shaded conditions with depth into the plant canopy. The frequency distributions showed that net radiation in sunflecks in a canopy can exceed that above the canopy, and that negative values of net radiation can exist in shadows. A Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Model (SPAM) also predicted that net radiation in sunflecks in the canopy would exceed net radiation above the canopy. The effects of spots with high radiation load within the plant canopy on leaf temperature and convective heat exchange were investigated theoretically.Contributed by the Northeast Branch, Soil and Water Conservation Research Division, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, in cooperation with the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, New York. Supported in part by the Atmospheric Sciences Laboratory, U.S. Army Electronics Command, Fort Huachuca, Arizona. Deparment of Agronomy Series, Paper No. 907. 相似文献
8.
D. R. Butler 《Boundary-Layer Meteorology》1990,53(1-2):33-42
The boundary-layer resistance, r
d
, for water vapour transfer from single drops on a wheat leaf was derived from field measurements of the evaporation rate, drop temperature and air humidity. Parameters are estimated in an equation to calculate r
d
from drop diameter and wind speed. The relationship between resistance and wind speed is compared with that from other sources, and possible systematic errors in temperature measurements are examined using a model of the drop energy balance.On secondment from Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Bristol, IACR, Long Ashton Research Station, Long Ashton, Bristol BS18 9AF, U.K. 相似文献
9.
降水资源是农作物的主要水分来源,农作物通过吸收土壤中的水分维持正常的生长发育,但由于未考虑农作物冠层对降水截留作用,在水资源评估和农田水分平衡研究中往往高估降水作用。该文通过2018年玉米生长季在辽宁锦州农业气象试验站开展的降水模拟试验系统分析了玉米冠层对降水的截留效应,结果表明:在降水量一定条件下,玉米冠层截留量与叶面积指数的二次多项式拟合相关最佳;在叶面积指数一定条件下,玉米冠层截留量与降水量的幂函数拟合相关最佳。综合叶面积指数和降水量分析表明:玉米冠层截留量与叶面积指数平方及降水量对数函数拟合呈正相关。根据我国玉米传统种植方式,高产玉米的叶面积指数最大一般为5~6,因此,对一次降水的最大截留量通常约为1.5~2.3 mm,当叶面积指数小于1时,对降水的截留可忽略不计。 相似文献
10.
William P. Kustas Martha C. Anderson John M. Norman Fuqin Li 《Boundary-Layer Meteorology》2007,122(1):167-187
In many land-surface models using bulk transfer (one-source) approaches, the application of radiometric surface temperature
observations in energy flux computations has given mixed results. This is due in part to the non-unique relationship between
the so-called aerodynamic temperature, which relates to the efficiency of heat exchange between the land surface and overlying
atmosphere, and a surface temperature measurement from a thermal-infrared radiometer, which largely corresponds to a weighted
soil and canopy temperature as a function of radiometer viewing angle. A number of studies over the past several years using
multi-source canopy models and/or experimental data have developed simplified methods to accommodate radiometric–aerodynamic
temperature differences in one-source approaches. A recent investigation related the variability in the radiometric–aerodynamic
relation to solar radiation using experimental data from a variety of landscapes, while another used a multi-source canopy
model combined with measurements over a wide range in vegetation density to derive a relationship based on leaf area index.
In this study, simulations by a detailed multi-source soil–plant–environment model, Cupid, which considers both radiative
and turbulent exchanges across the soil–canopy–air interface, are used to explore the radiometric–aerodynamic temperature
relations for a semi-arid shrubland ecosystem under a range of leaf area/canopy cover, soil moisture and meteorological conditions.
The simulated radiometric-aerodynamic temperatures indicate that, while solar radiation and leaf area both strongly affect
the magnitude of this temperature difference, the relationships are non-unique, having significant variability depending on
local conditions. These simulations also show that soil–canopy temperature differences are highly correlated with variations
in the radiometric–aerodynamic temperature differences, with the slope being primarily a function of leaf area. This result
suggests that two-source schemes with reliable estimates of component soil and canopy temperatures and associated resistances
may be better able to accommodate variability in the radiometric–aerodynamic relation for a wider range in vegetated canopy
cover conditions than is possible with one-source schemes. However, comparisons of sensible heat flux estimates with Cupid
using a simplified two-source model and a one-source model accommodating variability in the radiometric-aerodynamic relation
based on vegetation density gave similar scatter. On the other hand, with experimental data from the shrubland site, the two-source
model generally outperformed the one-source scheme. Clearly, vegetation density/leaf area has a major effect on the radiometric–aerodynamic
temperature relation and must be considered in either one-source or two-source formulations. Hence these adjusted one-source
models require similar inputs as in two-source approaches, but provide as output only bulk heat fluxes; this is not as useful
for monitoring vegetation conditions. 相似文献
11.
Global and net solar radiation profiles were measured by traversing sensors at four heights in a square-sown plot and a row plot of field corn on four relatively cloudless days in August 1972. The fluxes and their vertical distributions are discussed. A numerical model of the short-wave radiation fluxes in a canopy is presented. Using leaf area index and fixed leaf radiative properties, calculated values of radiation are within 10% of measurements in most instances. The performance under predominantly beam or diffuse radiation is similar and model values of crop albedo compare well with values calculated from radiation measurements above the crops. 相似文献
12.
A neighbourhood-scale multi-layer urban canopy model of shortwave and longwave radiation exchange that explicitly includes the radiative effects of tall vegetation (trees) is presented. Tree foliage is permitted both between and above buildings, and mutual shading, emission and reflection between buildings and trees are included. The basic geometry is a two-dimensional canyon with leaf area density profiles and probabilistic variation of building height. Furthermore, the model accounts for three-dimensional path lengths through the foliage. Ray tracing determines the receipt of direct shortwave irradiance by building and foliage elements. View factors for longwave and shortwave diffuse radiation exchange are computed once at the start of the simulation using a Monte Carlo ray tracing approach; for subsequent model timesteps, matrix inversion rapidly solves infinite reflections and interception of emitted longwave between all elements. The model is designed to simulate any combination of shortwave and longwave radiation frequency bands, and to be portable to any neighbourhood-scale urban canopy geometry based on the urban canyon. Additionally, the model is sufficiently flexible to represent forest and forest-clearing scenarios. Model sensitivity tests demonstrate the model is robust and computationally feasible, and highlight the importance of vertical resolution to the performance of urban canopy radiation models. Full model evaluation is limited by the paucity of within-canyon radiation measurements in urban neighbourhoods with trees. Where appropriate model components are tested against analytic relations and results from an independent urban radiation transfer model. Furthermore, system response tests demonstrate the ability of the model to realistically distribute shortwave radiation among urban elements as a function of built form, solar angle and tree foliage height, density and clumping. Separate modelling of photosynthetically-active and near-infrared shortwave bands is shown to be important in some cases. Increased canyon height-to-width ratio and/or tree cover diminishes the net longwave radiation loss of individual canyon elements (e.g., floor, walls), but, notably, has little effect on the net longwave loss of the whole urban canopy. When combined with parametrizations for the impacts of trees on airflow and hydrological processes in the urban surface layer, the new radiation model extends the applicability of urban canopy models and permits more robust assessment of trees as tools to manage urban climate, air quality, human comfort and building energy loads. 相似文献
13.
Abstract Dawn‐to‐dusk evolution of air turbulence, sensible heat and latent heat above a forest during cloud‐free or near‐cloud‐free summer conditions is modelled by way of a system of differential equations. Temperatures in and above the canopy, near canopy‐top wind velocities, early morning leaf moisture (dew) and afternoon canopy ventilation (i.e. heat released from the canopy and from below the canopy) are included in the mathematical treatment. Computed results are compared with field data for atmospheric temperature and wind speed profiles up to 1200 m, within‐canopy temperature, and canopy‐level radiation, turbulent fluxes and wind speeds. Data were collected at a central New Brunswick mixed‐wood forest site dominated by spruce (Picea spp. ) and shade‐tolerant hardwoods for four representative summer days. It was found that the effective canopy temperature was not only affected by insolation, but also by the extent of canopy ventilation and the amount of dew on the foliage. The growth of the mixing layer was affected by canopy ventilation and by above‐canopy wind speeds. Model calculations closely simulated the meteorological observations. 相似文献
14.
R. G. Bill Jr. L. H. Allen Jr. T. Audunson B. Gebhart E. Lemon 《Boundary-Layer Meteorology》1976,10(2):199-220
Hot-wire anemometers were used to measure air temperature and the three velocity components of the wind within and above a maize canopy. From digitized anemometer outputs, correlation coefficients for vertical heat flux and turbulent momentum transfer were calculated. A comparison of these coefficients with profiles of mean wind speed and mean temperature indicates that the main features of the turbulence may be explained in terms of the usual mixing-length theory. Instantaneous records of heat and momentum flux, however, indicate the existence of other competing turbulent mechanisms due to the unsteady, non-equilibrium nature of the turbulent flow. Regimes of flow dominated by mechanical and/or thermal mixing are indicated. Spectral results show that high shear and turbulent intensity levels as well as the presence of the maize leaves and stalks as vortex-shedding surfaces complicate the energy transfer mechanism. An energy balance between radiation and convection reveals that the energy budget is primarily a balance between solar radiation and the flux of latent heat.Contribution of the Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, in cooperation with the Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Ithaca, N.Y., U.S.A. and the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. Department of Agronomy Series No. 1116.Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Gainesville, Florida Section for Estuary and Fjord Studies, River and Harbour Laboratory, Technical University of Norway, Trondheim, Norway; State Univ. of New York at Buffalo; and U.S. Department of Agriculture and Cornell University; respectively. 相似文献
15.
在田间实验基础上对冬小麦田逐日14时基于冠层温度的作物水分胁迫指数，（CWSI）进行了计算和分析。同一时刻干旱处理CWSI高于湿润处理；麦田灌溉后CWSI4～6天降到极小值，表明了灌水后作物从水分胁迫状态恢复所需的时间；从本次灌溉后CWSI达到极小值至再次灌溉期间，CWSI呈持续增加趋势。这些表明CWSI较好地反映了因土壤供水不足导致的作物水分胁迫。CWSI与叶水势之间呈明显的负相关关系。CWSI等于0.4，相当于实际蒸散与可能蒸散的比率为60%，是指示冬小麦发生严重水分胁迫的关键性指标。 相似文献
16.
17.
Mass and energy fluxes between the atmosphere and vegetation are driven by meteorological variables, and controlled by plant
water status, which may change more markedly diurnally than soil water. We tested the hypothesis that integration of dynamic
changes in leaf water potential may improve the simulation of CO2 and water fluxes over a wheat canopy. Simulation of leaf water potential was integrated into a comprehensive model (the ChinaAgrosys)
of heat, water and CO2 fluxes and crop growth. Photosynthesis from individual leaves was integrated to the canopy by taking into consideration the
attenuation of radiation when penetrating the canopy. Transpiration was calculated with the Shuttleworth-Wallace model in
which canopy resistance was taken as a link between energy balance and physiological regulation. A revised version of the
Ball-Woodrow-Berry stomatal model was applied to produce a new canopy resistance model, which was validated against measured
CO2 and water vapour fluxes over winter wheat fields in Yucheng (36°57′ N, 116°36′ E, 28 m above sea level) in the North China
Plain during 1997, 2001 and 2004. Leaf water potential played an important role in causing stomatal conductance to fall at
midday, which caused diurnal changes in photosynthesis and transpiration. Changes in soil water potential were less important.
Inclusion of the dynamics of leaf water potential can improve the precision of the simulation of CO2 and water vapour fluxes, especially in the afternoon under water stress conditions. 相似文献
18.
D. R. Butler 《Boundary-Layer Meteorology》1986,36(1-2):39-51
In crop canopies, the persistence of discrete water drops on leaves after rain is of particular importance to the epidemiology of certain foliar pathogens. A model is described which simulates the heat and water vapour fluxes in a plant canopy and includes evaporation from water drops on the leaves. Energy balance equations allow for heat conducted to drops from the adjacent leaf tissue. Preliminary field tests of model performance for winter wheat, which compare predicted and visually assessed leaf wetness, are encouraging. 相似文献
19.
棉花冠层微气象特征研究 总被引：6，自引：0，他引：6
利用棉花花铃期作物冠层和农田土壤小气候观测资料分析研究了棉花群体内温度、湿度和风速的时空变化规律,探讨了叶片水势、空气饱和差和冠层净辐射之间的关系,对土壤温度和土壤热通量的变化也进行了客观分析。 相似文献
20.
土壤-植被-大气系统水分散失机理的数值模拟 总被引：8，自引：0，他引：8
以Eeardorff(1978)提出的陆面参数化方案和Noilhan等人(1989)土壤水分参数化方案为基础,对陆面物理过程参数化方案进行了改进,在模式中较详细地考虑了植被和地面的各种物理参量如地面和叶面的反射率和发射率,净叶面面积指数,植被的物理阻抗等,并与大气边界层模式耦合。应用该模式模拟了沙漠及绿洲地区不同植被覆盖率情况下的蒸散量、土壤含水量和表面温度的日变化和连续变化特征;对不同植被覆盖率的热量平衡特征进行了比较。结果表明该模式较好地反映了地表蒸散3阶段的变化趋势特征,揭示出下垫面热量平衡分量间的相互转换过程。该模式可以用于中尺度的气象和区域气候模式,模拟和预测不同植被覆盖情况下近地层的热量输送和水分散失情况。 相似文献