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1.
Great Lakes Hydrology Under Transposed Climates 总被引：3，自引：0，他引：3
Thomas E. Croley II Frank H. Quinn Kenneth E. Kunkel Stanley a. Changnon 《Climatic change》1998,38(4):405-433
Historical climates, based on 43 years of daily data from areas south and southwest of the Great Lakes, were used to examine the hydrological response of the Great Lakes to warmer climates. The Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory used their conceptual models for simulating moisture storages in, and runoff from, the 121 watersheds draining into the Great Lakes, over-lake precipitation into each lake, and the heat storages in, and evaporation from, each lake. This transposition of actual climates incorporates natural changes in variability and timing within the existing climate; this is not true for General Circulation Model-generated corrections applied to existing historical data in many other impact studies. The transposed climates lead to higher and more variable over-land evapotranspiration and lower soil moisture and runoff with earlier runoff peaks since the snow pack is reduced up to 100%. Water temperatures increase and peak earlier. Heat resident in the deep lakes increases throughout the year. Buoyancy-driven water column turnover frequency drops and lake evaporation increases and spreads more throughout the annual cycle. The response of runoff to temperature and precipitation changes is coherent among the lakes and varies quasi-linearly over a wide range of temperature changes, some well beyond the range of current GCM predictions for doubled CO2 conditions. 相似文献
2.
3.
A GCM land surface scheme was used, in off-line mode, to simulate the runoff, latent and sensible heat fluxes for two distinct
Australian catchments using observed atmospheric forcing. The tropical Jardine River catchment is 2500 km2 and has an annual rainfall of 1700 mm y–1 while the Canning River catchment is 540 km2, has a Mediterranean climate (annual rainfall of 800 mm y–1) and is ephemeral for half the year. It was found that the standard version of a land surface scheme developed for a GCM,
and initialised as for incorporation into a GCM, simulated similar latent and sensible heat fluxes compared to a basin-scale
hydrological model (MODHYDROLOG) which was calibrated for each catchment. However, the standard version of the land surface
scheme grossly overestimated the observed peak runoff in the wet Jardine River catchment at the expense of runoff later in
the season. Increasing the soil water storage permitted the land surface scheme to simulate observed runoff quite well, but
led to a different simulation of latent and sensible heat compared to MODHYDROLOG. It is concluded that this 2-layer land
surface scheme was unable to simulate both catchments realistically. The land surface scheme was then extended to a three-layer
model. In terms of runoff, the resulting control simulations with soil depths chosen as for the GCM were better than the best
simulations obtained with the two-layer model. The three-layer model simulated similar latent and sensible heat for both catchments
compared to MODHYDROLOG. Unfortunately, for the ephemeral Canning River catchment, the land surface scheme was unable to time
the observed runoff peak correctly. A tentative conclusion would be that this GCM land surface scheme may be able to simulate
the present day state of some larger and wetter catchments but not catchments with peaky hydrographs and zero flows for part
of the year. This conclusion requires examination with a range of GCM land surface schemes against a range of catchments.
Received: 9 June 1995 / Accepted: 4 April 1996 相似文献
4.
In this study it is shown that the availability of a very high resolution dataset of land surface characteristics leads to the improvement of a surface runoff parameterization scheme. The improved parameterization scheme was developed for application in global and regional climate models and is a further development of the Arno scheme that is widely used in climate models. Here, surface runoff is computed as infiltration excess from a "bucket" type reservoir which takes the subgrid variability of soil saturation within a model gridbox into account. Instead of prescribing a distribution of subgrid scale soil water capacities as in the original Arno scheme, the array of high resolution soil water capacities taken from a global 1 km dataset of land surface parameters is used to obtain individual fractional saturation curves for each model gridbox. From each saturation curve, the three parameters (a shape parameter describing the shape of the subgrid distribution of soil water capacities, subgrid minimum and maximum soil water capacity) required in the modified formulation of the scheme are derived via optimization. As in the original Arno scheme applied in the ECHAM general circulation model and the REMO regional climate model, topography variations will influence the distribution of saturated subgrid areas within a model gridbox. At most gridboxes the net effect of these changes is such that more runoff is produced for high soil water contents and less runoff for low soil water contents. A validation of simulated discharge computed with a simplified land surface scheme applied to reanalysis data of the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts and a hydrological discharge model has shown that these changes lead to a more realistic simulation of the annual cycle of discharge for several catchments. In particular this could be shown for the Yangtze Kiang and Amur catchments where adequate input data are available. 相似文献
5.
陆面过程模式的改进及其检验 总被引：11，自引：0，他引：11
文中对陆面过程模式 (BATS)进行了改进 ,改进后的模式能较好地模拟地表物理量的年、季和日变化 ,它有两方面的特点 :采用热扩散方程模拟 7层土壤温度 ,模拟的温度可与实测值进行比较 ;在BATS的地表径流方案中 ,考虑了空间不均匀性的一般地表径流 (GVIC)过程 ,研究结果表明 :⑴模式能很好地模拟各层土壤温度的年、季和日变化。冬季土壤温度下层高于上层 ,而在夏季上层高于下层 ,这种上下层温度的转换时间大约在 4和 10月份 ,这与实测土壤温度的年变化非常一致。较为准确地模拟了各层土壤温度日变化的时滞效应。⑵用南京和武汉站的资料 ,将BATS地表径流方案模拟的地表水分分量与GVIC方案进行比较 ,BATS地表径流方案模拟的地表水分分量 ,与总水量的平衡相差较大 ,而GVIC模拟的效果相对较好 ,地表总水量基本上与降水总量达到了平衡 相似文献
6.
H. Douville 《Climate Dynamics》1998,14(3):151-172
Global soil moisture data of high quality and resolution are not available by direct observation, but are useful as boundary
and initial conditions in comprehensive climate models. In the framework of the GSWP (Global Soil Wetness Project), the ISBA
land-surface scheme of Météo-France has been forced with meteorological observations and analyses in order to study the feasibility
of producing a global soil wetness climatology at a 1°×1° horizontal resolution. A control experiment has been performed from
January 1987 to December 1988, using the ISLSCP Initiative I boundary conditions. The annual mean, the standard deviation
and the normalised annual harmonic of the hydrologic fields have been computed from the 1987 monthly results. The global maps
which are presented summarise the surface hydrologic budget and its annual cycle. The soil wetness index and snow cover distributions
have been compared respectively to the results of the ECMWF reanalysis and to satellite and in situ observations. The simulated
runoff has been validated against a river flow climatology, suggesting a possible underestimation over some large river basins.
Besides the control run, other simulations have been performed in order to study the sensitivity of the hydrologic budget
to changes in the surface parameters, the precipitation forcing and the runoff scheme. Such modifications have a significant
impact on the partition of total precipitation into evaporation and runoff. The sensitivity of the results suggests that soil
moisture remains one of the most difficult climatological parameters to model and that any computed soil wetness climatology
must be considered with great caution.
Received: 3 January 1997 / Accepted: 19 August 1987 相似文献
7.
GRAPES NOAH-LSM陆面模式水文过程的改进及试验研究 总被引：3，自引：1，他引：2
土壤含水量的计算影响着陆面过程的能量平衡和水量平衡,是陆面模式的核心计算要素之一。目前,GRAPES_Meso模式采用的NOAH-LSM(Noah-Land Surface Model)陆面模式既不能有效地表达径流产源面积的变动情况,也不能完整描述水文循环过程。本次试验针对以上问题对其进行了改进:(1)加入蓄水容量曲线,考虑网格内产流面积的变化及土壤含水量的不均匀性;(2)加入汇流模式,以考虑水平二维水分再分配,提高模式对径流和流量模拟能力。选取2008年8月至9月降水进行模拟试验,研究陆面水循环过程对近地面气象要素的影响。结果表明:改进后的模式模拟土壤湿度、2 m温度等近地面气象要素更接近观测值,并最终对降水量以及降水落区也产生了一定的影响。 相似文献
8.
区域气候模式(RegCM2)与水文模式耦合的数值试验 总被引：12，自引：2，他引：12
建立不均匀的地表径流算法，修改RegCM2的径流方案，设计了一个适合与气候模式RegCM2耦合、能模拟水文站流量的汇流模式，模拟了1998年6、7、8月降水的空间分布，分析了该径流方案对降水、地表热量通量、地表径流、土壤湿度产生的影响。结果表明：（1）该方案在模拟1998年长江流域降水空间分布上有一定的合理性，在一定程度上改善了降水量的模拟，其影响大致是总降水量的10％；（2）地表径流方案改变了地面向大气输送的热量通量，这种作用随时间发生变化，这种变化与地表水分的再分配有关；（3）本方案计算的土壤渗透率较强，在暴雨初期，产生径流较少，而在暴雨后期土壤湿度增大，产生的地表径流较大，这一点更符合洪水形成的特点；（4）水文一气候耦合模式模拟了两个长江水文站的流量，模拟值基本反映了实测值的变化趋势，也表明耦合模式基本能反映1998年夏季长江流域大暴雨期间的地表水文过程。 相似文献
9.
Summary
Discharge from a small grassland catchment in Ireland is simulated with the atmospheric land-surface scheme SEWAB. Hydrological
processes are parameterized to represent surface runoff and baseflow generation and soil moisture storage changes. Surface
ponding and infiltration are explicitly described in order to account for the rapid response of streamflow to precipitation
events. The annual discharge, the evapotranspiration and individual flood flows are accurately modelled. The simulation of
soil moisture at various depths is close to the observations from time domain reflectometer measurements. An analysis of the
significance of individual hydrological processes for discharge simulation from the small catchment found the ponding process
to be essential for time periods of less than 12 hours. A depth dependent saturation hydraulic conductivity improves the simulations
on all time scales.
Received October 25, 2000/Revised February 16, 2001 相似文献
10.
M. E. S. Silva S. H. Franchito V. Brahmananda Rao 《Theoretical and Applied Climatology》2006,85(1-2):1-18
Summary A coupled biosphere-atmosphere statistical-dynamical model (SDM) is used to study the climatic effects of Amazonian deforestation.
A soil moisture model based on BATS has been incorporated into the SDM in order to study the biogeophysical feedback of change
in surface characteristics to regional climate due to the deforestation. In the control experiment, the mean annual and mean
seasonal climate is well simulated by the model when compared with NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data. In the deforestation experiment,
the evergreen broadleaf trees in the Amazonian region are substituted by short grass. The effects of Amazonian deforestation
on regional climate are analysed taking into account the model simulations for the land portion of the latitude belts comprising
the tropical region. Amazonian deforestation results in regional climate changes such as a decrease in evaporation, precipitation,
available surface net radiation and soil moisture content, and an increase in temperatures and sensible heat flux. The reduction
in transpiration was responsible for the most part of the decrease in total evapotranspiration. The reduction in precipitation
was larger than the decrease in evapotranspiration so that runoff was reduced. The simulation of the diurnal cycle of the
surface temperature shows an increase in temperature during the day and a decrease at night, which is in agreement with observations,
whereas earlier GCM experiments showed an increase both during the day and night. In general, the changes in temperature and
energy fluxes are in good agreement with GCM experiments, showing that the SDM is able to simulate the characteristics of
the tropical climate that are associated with the substitution of forest by pasture areas. 相似文献
11.
利用NCAR的公用陆面模式CLM4.0(Community Land Model 4.0),以1961~2010年普林斯顿大学的大气驱动场资料作为大气强迫场,对西南地区陆面过程变化进行了非耦合模拟试验。分析结果表明:西南地区降水呈现明显的干湿季节特征,季风期降水量分布为东北—西南走向,以印度缅甸一带向东北方向递减;非季风期近似呈东西梯度,以两湖地区为中心向西递减。全年而言,西南地区约有16.7%的降水首先被冠层截留,到达地面后约有60.5%以渗透的形式进入土壤,另有约17.1%形成地表径流,还有少部分降水以直接蒸发的形式加湿低层大气。各水循环因子分布与降水分布密切相关,其中冠层截留、地表径流、冠层蒸发的季风期与非季风期特征差异不大,而地下排水和地表蒸发在非季风期均明显高于非季风期,渗透过程则相反。非季风期西南地区水循环的蒸发高、渗透小、地下排水量显著,这三个过程的共同作用,造成西南地区冬春季陆面水份显著流失,是引发西南春旱的可能原因之一。 相似文献
12.
A parametrization of the lateral waterflow for the global scale 总被引：1，自引：2，他引：1
The representation of hydrological land surface processes has, so far, been treated inadequately in global models of the
atmospheric general circulation (GCMs). In particular the lateral waterflows from the continents into the ocean have been
described unsatisfactorily. The aim of this study is to develop a model for the lateral waterflow on the global scale which
describes the translation and retention of the lateral discharge as a function of the spatially distributed land surface characteristics
that are globally available. Here, global scale refers to the resolution of 0.5° and smaller, corresponding to a typical GCM
gridbox area of about 2500 km2. Discharge models need a number of specific input variables that are usually not available from measurements such as runoff
and drainage. Therefore, these variables have to be derived from observed data such as precipitation and surface air temperature.
For the model development in this study, a new simplified land surface scheme was applied to compute these variables. The
discharge from a catchment of approximately the size of a 0.5° gridbox was simulated using several types of models. The intercomparison
of the simulated lateral flows of the different models shows that as a minimum a separation between flow processes such as
overland flow, baseflow and riverflow is required to yield good discharge simulations. As both the retention and translation
of a flow process need to be simulated, a two-parameter model is required for the representation of overland flow and riverflow.
For the baseflow, a one-parameter model is sufficient. The resulting model structure is called the hydrological discharge model or HD model. A first parametrization approach was defined using the gridbox characteristics of topography gradient and gridbox length.
The skill of the discharge simulation depends not only on the formulations of the model, but also on the precise definition
of the boundaries of the model catchments. The sizes and the positioning of the model catchments on the globe were defined
by using a river direction file as well as a modified topography dataset. In a first application, the HD model successfully
simulated river discharge using runoff and drainage from a five year atmospheric GCM integration (ECHAM4-T42) as input. The
annual cycles of the monthly means of the simulated discharge of several large rivers were compared to the observed discharges
provided by the Global Runoff Data Centre. The HD model achieves a considerable improvement of the simulated discharge compared
to the model which is currently operational at MPI. The improved volume of the discharge is directly related to the definition
of more realistic model catchments and the improved timing of the flow is mainly due to the newly introduced separation of
the flow processes.
Received: 20 November 1996 / Accepted: 8 July 1997 相似文献
13.
A coupled model of RAMS3b(Regional Atmospheric Modeling System,Version 3b) and LSPM(a land surface process model),in which some basic hydrological processes such as precipitation,evapotranspiration.surface runoff,infiltration and bottom drainage are included,has been established.With the coupled model,we have simulated the response of soil to the sever eweather process which caused the disastrous flood in north italy during 4-7.November,1994,simultaneously compared with the observation and the original RAMS3b,which has a soil and vegetation parameterization scheme(hereafter,SVP) emphasizing on the surface energy fluxes,while some hydrological processes in the soil are not described clearly.The results show that the differences between coupling LSPM and SVP exist mainly in the response of soil to the precipitation.The soil in the SVP never saturates under the strong input of precipitation,while the newly coupled model seems better,the soil has been saturated for one day or more and causes strong surface runoff,which constitutes the flood.Further sensitivity experiments show that the surface hydrological processes are very sensitive to the initial soil moisture and soil type when we compared the results with a relatively dry case and sandy soil.The coupled model has potentiality for simulation on the interaction between regional climate and land surface hydrological processes,and the regional water resources research concerning desertification,drought and flood. 相似文献
14.
J A Marengo J R Miller G L Russell C E Rosenzweig F Abramopoulos 《Climate Dynamics》1994,10(6-7):349-361
This study examines the impact of a new land-surface parameterization and a river routing scheme on the hydrology of the Amazon basin, as depicted by the NASA/Goddard Institute of Space Studies (GISS) global climate model (GCM). The more physically realistic land surface scheme introduces a vegetation canopy resistance and a six-layer soil system. The new routing scheme allows runoff to travel from a river's headwater to its mouth according to topography and other channel characteristics and improves the timing of the peak flow. River runoff is examined near the mouth of the Amazon and for all of its sub-basins. With the new land-surface parameterization, river run-off increases significantly and is consistent with that observed in most basins and at the mouth. The representation of the river hydrology in small basins is not as satisfactory as in larger basins. One positive impact of the new land-surface parameterization is that it produces more realistic evaporation over the Amazon basin, which was too high in the previous version of the GCM. The realistic depiction of evaporation also affects the thermal regime in the lower atmosphere in the Amazon. In fact, the lower evaporation in some portions of the basin reduces the cloudiness, increases the solar radiation reaching the ground, increases the net radiation at the surface, and warms the surface as compared to observations. Further GCM improvement is needed to obtain a better representation of rainfall processes. 相似文献
15.
流域水文模型是区域水资源评价的重要工具,基于普林斯顿全球气象驱动数据集和澜沧江-湄公河流域（简称：澜湄流域）八个水文站实测资料,分析了澜湄流域不同区间的水文特性,采用RCCC-WBM模型（Water Balance Model developed by Research Center for Climate Change,RCCC-WBM）开展了区间径流及水量平衡模拟研究。结果表明：1）澜湄流域不同区间气候水文差异显著,上游气温低且年内变幅大,下游气温高年内变幅小;尽管不同区间降水、径流的年内分配特征总体一致,但径流的年内分布峰值大多滞后降水峰值一个时段。2）RCCC-WBM模型能够较好地模拟出澜湄流域不同区间的径流过程,率定期和验证期的月径流模拟效率系数（Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency,NSE）均在60%以上,总量模拟误差（Relative Error,RE）也均控制在±10%以内,模型具有较好的区域适应性。3）模拟的土壤含水量都具有先衰减后增加再衰减的年内分配特征;不同季节径流和蒸发耗散的水源不同,降水是汛期水分耗散的主要来源,而土壤含水量是非汛期径流和蒸发消耗的主要水源。 相似文献
16.
长江流域水分收支以及再分析资料可用性分析 总被引：9，自引：0，他引：9
首先利用实测资料定量计算了长江流域水分收支的各分量,包括降水、径流、蒸发、水汽辐合等,分析其季节循环、年际变化以及线性趋势变化。结果表明,多年平均该流域是水汽汇区,主要来自平均流输送造成的水汽辐合,而与天气过程密切相关的瞬变波则主要造成流域的水汽辐散。蒸发所占比例接近于径流,对流域水分循环十分重要。大部分要素的季节变化和年际变化都很大,只有蒸发和大气含水量的年际变化较小。降水和平均流输送造成的水汽辐合一般在6月达到年内最大,12月达到年内最小,而径流和大气含水量则一般滞后1个月于7月达到年内最大,1月降为年内最小。1958—1983年,夏半年降水略微增加,冬半年略微减少,各月实测径流为弱的增长趋势,但均不显著,年平均蒸发亦无显著的趋势变化。然后将实测资料同ECMWF及NCEP/NCAR再分析资料作进一步对比分析,以检验两套再分析资料对长江流域水分循环的描述能力。在量值上,NCEP/NCAR再分析资料中的降水、蒸发、径流均比实测偏大很多,大气含水量及由平均流输送所造成的水汽辐合则偏小很多;ECMWF再分析资料中的降水量、径流量基本上与实测接近,蒸发量偏大,大气含水量及由平均流输送所造成的水汽辐合偏小,但比NCEP/NCAR再分析资料要接近实测。另外,该两套再分析资料均可以较好地描述长江流域水分收支的季节循环和年际变化,而且同样是ECMWF再分析资料与实测资料的一致性更好。但是两套再分析资料在1958—1983年均存在十分夸张的线性趋势变化,尤其是ECMWF再分析资料。 相似文献
17.
植被覆盖异常变化影响陆面状况的数值模拟 总被引：15，自引：2，他引：15
利用NCAR最新的公用陆面模式CLM3．0，通过数值模拟初步研究了植被叶面积指数（LAI，leafareaindex）异常变化对陆面状况的可能影响，结果表明，植被LAI的异常变化能够引起地表能量平衡、地表水循环等陆面状况的异常。（1）植被LAI的异常变化主要影响太阳辐射在植被与地表之间的分配，以及地表的感热、潜热通量。植被LAI增大，能够引起植被吸收的太阳辐射增加，而到达土壤表面的太阳辐射减小，并导致植被的蒸发、蒸腾潜热通量增加，造成地表的蒸发潜热和感热通量不同程度的减小。（2）植被LAI增大时，植被对降水的拦截和植被叶面的蒸发增大，植被的蒸腾作用也明显增强；植被LAI增加会使得热带地区各个季节的土壤表面蒸发、地表径流减小，而土壤湿度有所增加；LAI增加造成中高纬度地区土壤蒸发的减少主要出现在夏季；LAI增加还能够引起中高纬地区冬、春积雪深度不同程度的增加，造成春末、夏初地表径流的增加。（3）植被LAI增加能够使得叶面和土壤温度有所下降，但植被LAI的变化对叶面、土壤温度的影响相对较小。 相似文献
18.
The changes in hydrological processes in the Yellow River basin were simulated by using the Community Land Model(CLM,version 3.5),driven by historical climate data observed from 1951 to 2008.A comparison of modeled soil moisture and runoff with limited observations in the basin suggests a general drying trend in simulated soil moisture,runoff,and precipitation-evaporation balance(P-E) in most areas of the Yellow River basin during the observation period.Furthermore,annual soil moisture,runoff,and P-E averaged over the entire basin have declined by 3.3%,82.2%,and 32.1%,respectively.Significant drying trends in soil moisture appear in the upper and middle reaches of the basin,whereas a significant trend in declining surface runoff and P-E occurred in the middle reaches and the southeastern part of the upper reaches.The overall decreasing water availability is characterized by large spatial and temporal variability. 相似文献
19.
Abstract Second generation land surface schemes are the subject of much development activity among atmospheric modellers. This work is aimed at, among other things, improving the representation of the soil water balance in order to simulate, more properly, exchanges with the atmosphere and to permit the use of model output to generate streamflow for model validation. The Canadian development program is centred on CLASS, the Canadian Land Surface Scheme, developed at Environment Canada. This paper focuses on the improvement of hydrology in CLASS. This was accomplished by designing a two‐way interface to WATFLOOD, a distributed hydrologic model developed at the University of Waterloo. The two models share many features, which facilitated the coupling procedure. The interface retains the three‐layer vertical moisture budget representation in CLASS but adds three horizontal runoff possibilities. Runoff from the surface water follows Manning's equation for overland flow. Interflow is generated from the near‐surface soil layer using a parametrization of Richard's equation and base flow is produced by Darcian flow from the bottom of layer 3. An approximation of the internal topography of grid elements is used to supply horizontal gradients for the runoff components. Tests are in progress in four Canadian study areas. Initial results are presented for the summer of 1993 for the Saugeen River in southwestern Ontario. The new scheme produces realistic hydrographs, whereas the old scheme did not. Bare ground evaporation is reduced by about 17% as a consequence of reduced water availability in layer 1. Evapotranspiration is not affected because the rooting depth extends into layer 3, in which soil moisture does not change appreciably with the new scheme. These results suggest that the new scheme improves the representation of streamflow in WATFLOOD/CLASS and of the soil moisture budget in CLASS. Work is in progress to validate this result over basins, such as the BOREAS study watersheds, where both runoff and evapotranspiration measurements are available. 相似文献
20.
The sensitivity of evaporation to a prescribed vegetation annual cycle is examined globally in the Met Office Hadley Centre Unified Model (HadAM3) which incorporates the Met Office Surface Exchange Scheme (MOSES2) as the land surface scheme. A vegetation annual cycle for each plant functional type in each grid box is derived based on satellite estimates of Leaf Area Index (LAI) obtained from the nine-year International Satellite Land Surface Climatology Project II dataset. The prescribed model vegetation seasonality consists of annual cycles of a number of structural vegetation characteristics including LAI as well as canopy height, surface roughness, canopy water capacity, and canopy heat capacity, which themselves are based on empirical relationships with LAI. An annual cycle of surface albedo, which in the model is a function of soil albedo, surface soil moisture, and LAI, is also modelled and agrees reasonably with observed estimates of the surface albedo annual cycle. Two 25-year numerical experiments are completed and compared: the first with vegetation characteristics held at annual mean values, the second with prescribed realistic seasonally varying vegetation. Initial analysis uncovered an unrealistically weak relationship between evaporation and vegetation state that is primarily due to the insensitivity of evapotranspiration to LAI. This weak relationship is strengthened by the adjustment of two MOSES2 parameters that together improve the models LAI-surface conductance relationship by comparison with observed and theoretical estimates. The extinction coefficient for photosynthetically active radiation, k
par
, is adjusted downwards from 0.5 to 0.3, thereby enhancing the LAI-canopy conductance relationship. A canopy shading extinction coefficient, k
sh
, that controls what fraction of the soil surface beneath a canopy is directly exposed to the overlying atmosphere is increased from 0.5 to 1.0, which effectively reduces soil evaporation under a dense canopy. When the experiments are repeated with the adjusted parameters, the relationship between evaporation and vegetation state is strengthened and is more spatially consistent. At nearly all locations, the annual cycle of evaporation is enhanced in the seasonally varying vegetation experiment. Evaporation is stronger during the peak of the growing season and, in the tropics, reduced transpiration during the dry season when LAI is small leads to significantly lower total evaporation. 相似文献