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1.
Authigenic K‐feldspar was investigated in two Albian to Turonian sections in Israel using K‐Ar and Ar‐Ar dating, X‐ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy and chemical analysis. Both sections comprise a similar succession of shallow‐marine limestones, dolomites and marls, with some sandstone and shale beds of continental origin. The HCl‐insoluble residue fraction of the studied samples consists of clays, quartz, feldspars, goethite and trace amounts of heavy minerals. Most of the insoluble residues have a relatively high K‐feldspar content that has an adularia habit and is concentrated in the 4–7 µm size fraction. The authigenic origin of the K‐feldspar in the fine silt fraction is indicated by its high content relative to quartz, the uniform and idiomorphic shape of the crystals and its limited size range. Of the fine silt (4–7 or 4–10 µm) separates, 40% have ages that are similar to stratigraphic ages within the analytical and biostratigraphic errors. Ar‐Ar dating of a fine silt fraction with 94% K‐feldspar (4–10 µm, sample GYP 7) yields a plateau age identical to the total gas age and similar to the stratigraphic age. These results indicate that the K‐Ar age is not a mixture between detrital and late diagenetic K‐feldspar ages, but is rather an age of formation within a few million years after deposition. It is suggested that the early formation of the K‐feldspar was associated with dolomitization and was induced by residual brines as part of a reflux process.  相似文献   

2.
K–Ar dating was applied on authigenic potassic minerals which are abundant in sandstones from the south of the Sanfranciscana Basin, Western Minas Gerais State, central Brazil. The Quintinos Member fluvial sandstones (Três Barras Formation, Areado Group) contain significant amounts of authigenic K‐feldspar as microcrystals of adularia and sanidine habits. The ages of these microcrystals cluster into three groups: 106.1 ± 2.2, 89.9 ± 1.9 and 88.8 ± 1.8 Ma (from Albian to Coniacian). The older age of 106.1 ± 2.2 Ma was obtained from the coarse fraction analysed (10–20 µm) that can contain a mixture of detrital potassic minerals (K‐feldspar, muscovite, biotite and illite) and different authigenesis of K‐feldspar (overgrowths and microcrystals). Thus, only the younger ages were interpreted as precipitation of K‐feldspar microcrystals during the Late Cretaceous into the Quintinos Member sandstones. Moreover, these ages can document the formation of microcrystals within a few million years after deposition of the sandstones. The ages of authigenic illite from the Capacete Formation epiclastic sandstones (Mata da Corda Group) range from 88.5 ± 1.9 to 71.5 ± 1.9 Ma (Coniacian–Campanian). These results suggest the timing of the illitization event in these sandstones as well as a synchrony with K‐feldspar authigenesis in the Quintinos Member sandstones. These results are well constrained and are in agreement with stratigraphic, biostratigraphic and radiometric ages previously reported for the Sanfranciscana Basin. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.  相似文献   

3.
Xenotime overgrowths on detrital zircon in siliciclastic sediments have been reported in numerous studies. However, in natural samples, solid solution of zircon and xenotime is limited to near-end-member compositions. In order to characterize the interface region between both minerals and to draw inferences on the growth mechanisms of authigenic xenotime, we studied xenotime overgrowths on detrital zircon grains from two Phanerozoic sandstone samples with contrasting post-depositional histories. In one sample, the small (≤10 μm), pyramidal xenotime overgrowths are of diagenetic origin and grew without major discontinuity on the detrital zircon grain. The second sample shows up to >50-μm-wide, porous and inclusion-rich, hydrothermal xenotime overgrowths on detrital zircon, whereas the transition zone between both minerals is accompanied by large pore volume. Chemical compositions of the xenotime precipitates from the two samples differ particularly in Y, REE, Th and Sc concentrations, whereas high MREE availability in the diagenetic sample and the presence of Sc in the hydrothermal sample, respectively, appear to have promoted xenotime growth. Transmission electron microscopy on electron-transparent foils cut from the interface region shows that both the diagenetic xenotime and the hydrothermal xenotime are crystalline and grew in optical and crystallographic continuity to their detrital zircon substrata. Only a narrow transition zone (≤90 nm—diagenetic sample, 200–300 nm—hydrothermal sample) between zircon and xenotime is in part made up of nanometre-scale crystalline domains that are slightly distorted and may have formed from dissolution–re-precipitation processes at the zircon rim along with precipitation from the respective fluid.  相似文献   

4.
Diagenetic overgrowths on detrital quartz sand grains in sandstones can be isolated for direct measurement of their oxygen isotope ratios. Interfacial materials between detrital cores and diagenetic overgrowths are dissolved by etching with dilute HF. The weakened interface breaks when grains are agitated ultrasonically. Subsequent particle size separation is an effective means of concentrating the diagenetic component.  相似文献   

5.
根据伊利石K-Ar测年法研究,确定鄂尔多斯盆地存在两期与构造运动有关的成岩作用事件:即与早期燕山运动有关的侏罗纪(170—160Ma)和与晚期加里东运动有关的志留-泥盆纪(420-370Ma)成岩作用时代。为了揭示碎屑物质对K-Ar年龄的影响和伊利石成岩作用的机制,本文提出了一个通过观察K-Ar年龄随深度变化的趋势来进行判断的模式。在K-Ar年龄小于地层时代的条件下,K-Ar年龄与深度呈正相关,或者很相近的K-Ar年龄与深度变化无关均标志着没有或很少有碎屑物质的影响;同时,前者指示逐渐埋藏条件下的成岩作用,而后者则反映短暂的热事件引起的成岩作用事件。  相似文献   

6.
安塞油田长2油层成岩作用及其对储层物性的影响   总被引:7,自引:7,他引:7  
安塞地区长2油层储层以中细粒长石砂岩为主,主要成岩矿物为绿泥石环边、方解石胶结物、石英和长石加大生长、伊利石、伊一蒙混层、钠长石和高岭石等。绿泥石环边的发育对原生粒间孔的保存起到有利的作用。石英加大级别达Ⅲ级,加大边含有丰富的有机包体,均一温度范围48.1~76.5℃,烃类进入储层的时间为早白垩世中期至晚白垩世。储层发育多种孔隙类型,面孔率平均为11.60%.主要类型有粒间孔、骨架颗粒溶孔和微裂缝等。残余粒间孔和骨架颗粒溶孔是本区长2储层的主要孔隙类型。根据成岩作用的矿物岩石学标志、有机质成熟度及古温度,将长2油层砂岩的成岩作用划分为3个成岩阶段:早成岩阶段、晚成岩阶段和表生成岩阶段。储层性质明显地受到沉积微相和成岩作用的影响,沉积物粒度较粗、厚度较大的分流河道储集物性明显优于各种粒度较细、厚度较薄的分流间席状砂体。  相似文献   

7.
The petrography and powder diffraction analyses were integrated to study the effect of diagenesis on the reservoir quality of the Mamu Sandstone in areas around Enugu, southeastern Nigeria. The sands are moderately to well sorted, very fine to fine grained feldspathic arenite deposited in diverse environments of upper to lower shoreface and sub-environments of delta plain. Pressure solutions, authigenic clays and quartz and feldspar overgrowths are the main diagenetic features of the sandstones in the area. These diagenetic features result in mechanical and chemical compaction, alteration of framework grains and precipitation of dissolved grains. In varying degrees, coating of clasts and filling of pore-spaces by clay and heavy minerals reduced the pore throat diameter, which caused mild reduction of the porosity and permeability of sands. Despite these observed diagenetic effects, the Mamu sands still have the potential to serve as good hydrocarbons reservoir especially for gas.  相似文献   

8.
Late Pennsylvanian sedimentary rocks in the Narragansett basin were metamorphosed (lower anchizone to sillimanite grade) during late Paleozoic regional metamorphism at ca. 275–280 Ma. Twenty-five variably sized concentrates of detrital muscovite were prepared from samples collected within contrasting low-grade areas (diagenesis — lower greenschist facies). Microprobe analyses suggest that the constituent detrital grains are not chemically internally zoned; however, some grains within several concentrates display very narrow (<25 m), compositionally distinct, low-grade, epitaxial peripheral overgrowths. Detrital muscovite concentrates from the lower anchizone are characterized by internally concordant 40Ar/39Ar age spectra which define plateau ages of ca. 350–360 Ma. These are interpreted to date post-Devonian (Acadian) cooling within proximal source areas. Concentrates from lower grade sectors of the middle anchizone display slightly discordant spectra in which apparent ages systematically increase from ca. 250–275 Ma to define intermediate- and high-temperature plateaus of ca. 360–400 Ma. Detrital muscovite within samples from higher grade sectors of the middle anchizone and the upper anchizone are characterized by systematic low age discordance throughout both low-and intermediate-temperature increments. High-temperature ages only range up to ca. 330 Ma. Six size fractions of detrital muscovite from a sample collected within the lower greenschist facies have similarly discordant spectra, in which, apparent ages increase slightly throughout the analyses from ca. 250 Ma to 275 Ma. The detrital muscovite results are interpreted to reflect variable affects of late Paleozoic regional metamorphism. However, it is uncertain to what extent the systematic low age spectra discordance reflects intracrystalline gradients in the concentration of 40Ar and/or experimental evolution of gas from relatively non-retentive epitaxial overgrowths. However, low age discordance occurs regardless of the extent of epitaxial overgrowth. Intermediate-temperature increments evolved during 40Ar/39Ar whole-rock analyses of five slate/phyllite samples are characterized by internally consistent apparent K/Ca ratios. These are attributed to gas evolved from constituent, very fine-grained white mica. Samples from lower grade portions of the middle anchizone are characterized by intermediate-temperature apparent ages which systematically increase from ca. 275–300 Ma to ca. 360–375 Ma before evolution of a high-temperature contribution from detrital plagioclase feldspar. This age variation may reflect partial late Paleozoic rejuvenation of very fine-grained detrital material with a source age similar to that for the detrital muscovites. Slate/phyllite samples from upper sectors of the middle anchizone and from the upper anchizone were completely rejuvenated during late Paleozoic metamorphism and record intermediate-and high-temperature plateau ages of ca. 270–290 Ma. These data document that metamorphic conditions of the lower to middle biotite zone (ca. 325–350 °C) are required to completely rejuvenate intracrystalline argon systems of detrital muscovite. Therefore, the 40Ar/39Ar dating method may be useful in determination of detrital muscovite provenance and in resolution of the metamorphic evolution of low-grade terranes.  相似文献   

9.
We used the K–Ar ages of clay-sized mineral grains to investigate the timing of activity on the Minami-Awa Fault, which is a fossil seismogenic fault along a subducting plate interface separating the coherent strata of the Shimanto accretionary complex to the north from the tectonic mélange to the south. The K–Ar ages from the matrix shale of the mélange range from 85 to 48 Ma and decrease with decreasing amount of detrital mica, indicating that they record a mixture of authigenic illite related to burial diagenesis and detrital mica. In contrast, the K–Ar ages of an ultracataclasite within the fault core are significantly younger, ranging from 29 to 23 Ma, and are unrelated to grain size and amount of detrital mica. This indicates that s Ar diffused completely from the ultracataclasite between 29 and 23 Ma, which postdates the formation of authigenic illite by at least several million years. The diffusion of 40Ar in the ultracataclasite was probably caused by frictional heating or high-temperature fluid migration that occurred when the fault was reactivated. The results indicate that seismogenic faults that separate tectonic mélange from coherent strata in accretionary complexes may slip, not only during accretion, but also long after accretion.  相似文献   

10.
S. FLINT 《Sedimentology》1987,34(1):11-29
The Oligo-Miocene Pacencia Group of Antofagasta Province, northern Chile consists of over 2 km of molassic sediments deposited in a series of alluvial fan and playa sub-environments. Sandstones of the Artolla Member, exposed around San Bartolo, represent playa-marginal sandflat deposits and locally host stratiform copper mineralization. A detailed study of these sediments has revealed a complex sequence of diagenetic modifications to the arkosic detrital mineral assemblage. Early dissolution of unstable ferro-magnesian minerals and calcic feldspar resulted in the release of ions into intra-stratal solution and the subsequent formation of a suite of eogenetic authigenic minerals. These include early hematite coatings on framework grains, pore-lining zeolite and pore-filling calcite, gypsum and celestite cements. Syntaxial overgrowths of albite, quartz and less common K-feldspar are well developed. Following early oxidative intrastratal conditions, the influx of acidic fluids derived from mudrocks during mesogenesis resulted in an important secondary porosity generation and the establishment of an acidic, reducing intrastratal environment. This facilitated the subsequent introduction of low temperature mineralizing solutions and formation of the San Bartolo copper deposit. A return to oxidative diagenetic conditions is recorded by late stage overgrowths of K-feldspar and quartz and the oxidation of native copper/chalcopyrite cements to cuprite/tenorite and chalcocite/covellite assemblages. This final telogenetic modification to the mineral assemblage is related to flushing by meteoric waters and provides independent evidence for an important phase of Andean deformation and uplift in the middle to upper Miocene.  相似文献   

11.
Many Lower Paleozoic limestones and dolostones in the Valley and Ridge province of the central and southern Appalachians contain 10 to 25 weight percent authigenic potassium feldspar. This was considered to be a product of early diagenesis, however, 40Ar39Ar analyses of overgrowths on detrital K-feldspar in Cambrian carbonate rocks from Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and Tennessee yield Late Carboniferous-Early Permian ages (278–322 Ma). Simple mass balance calculations suggest that the feldspar could not have formed isochemically, but required the flux of multiple pore volumes of fluid through the rocks, reflecting regional fluid migration events during the Late-Paleozoic Alleghanian orogeny.Microthermometric measurements of fluid inclusions in overgrowths on detrital K-feldspar and quartz grains from unmineralized rocks throughout the study area indicate homogenization temperatures from 100° to 200°C and freezing point depressions of −14° to −18.5°C (18–21 wt.% NaCl equiv). The apparent similarity of these fluids to fluid inclusions in ore and gangue minerals of nearby Mississippi Valley-type (MVT) deposits suggests that the regional occurrences of authigenic K-feldspar and MVT mineralization may be genetically related. This hypothesis is supported by the discovery of authigenic K-feldspar intergrown with sphalerite in several mines of the Mascot-Jefferson City District, E. Tennessee. Regional potassic alteration in unmineralized carbonate rocks and localized occurrences of MVT mineralization are both explainable by a gravity-driven flow model, in which deep brines migrate towards the basin margin under a hydraulic gradient established during the Alleghanian orogeny. The authigenic K-feldspar may reflect the loss of K during disequilibrium cooling of the ascending brines. MVT deposits are probably localized manifestations of the same migrating fluids, occurring where the necessary physical and chemical traps are present.  相似文献   

12.
K-Ar ages of Gulf Coast shales do not correspond to diagenetic ‘events’, but are a combination of inherited detrital ages and authigenic overprints. The key to understanding K-Ar ages of shales is the fate of the 40Ar when the host minerals dissolve or react during the illitisation reaction: is 40Ar incorporated within the illite, or is it lost to the porewaters? Ages are modelled as due to a single illitisation reaction, assuming a uniform precursor sediment and open-system import of K. Both whole-rock and clay mineral fraction data can be reproduced by modelling. The 40Ar incorporated into illite is a surprisingly high proportion (75-100%) of that produced within detrital phases (smectite, K-feldspar, mica), perhaps implying that the illitisation reaction is a solid-state transformation, or that 40Ar is imported into the shales along with incoming K. The model does not provide a good fit to the data below 4000 m, when the illitisation reaction is apparently complete, but shales lose 40Ar by solid-state diffusion or recrystallisation.  相似文献   

13.
The South China Sea began to outspread in the Oligocene. A great quantity of terraneous detritus was deposited in the northern continental shelf of the sea, mostly in Pearl River Mouth Basin, which constituted the main paleo-Pearl River Delta. The delta developed for a long geological time and formed a superimposed area. Almost all the oil and gas fields of detrital rock reservoir distribute in this delta. Thirty-three oil sandstone core samples in the Zhujiang Formation, lower Miocene (23–16 Ma), were collected from nine wells. The illite samples with detrital K feldspar (Kfs) separated from these sandstone cores in four sub-structural belts were analysed by the high-precision 40Ar/39Ar laser stepwise heating technique. All 33 illite 40Ar/39Ar data consistently yielded gradually rising age spectra at the low-temperature steps until reaching age plateaus at mid-high temperature steps. The youngest ages corresponding to the beginning steps were interpreted as the hydrocarbon accumulation ages and the plateau ages in mid-high temperature steps as the contributions of the detrital feldspar representing the ages of the granitic parent rocks in the provenances. The ages of the detrital feldspar from the Zhujiang Formation in the four sub-structural belts were different: (1) the late Cretaceous ages in the Lufeng 13 fault structural belt; (2) the late Cretaceous and early Cretaceous-Jurassic ages in the Huizhou 21 buried hill-fault belt; (3) the Jurassic and Triassic ages in the Xijiang 24 buried hill-fault belt; and (4) the early Cretaceous – late Jurassic ages in the Panyu 4 oil area. These detrital feldspar 40Ar/39Ar ages become younger and younger from west to east, corresponding to the age distribution of the granites in the adjacent Guangdong Province, Southern China.  相似文献   

14.
Petrographic and sulphur isotope studies support the long‐held contention that rounded grains of pyrite in siliciclastic sequences of the Late Archaean Witwatersrand Supergroup originated as placer grains. The grains are concentrated at sites where detrital heavy minerals are abundant within quartz‐pebble conglomerates and quartzose sandstones. Depositional sites with abundant pyrite are: (1) within the matrix of bar‐type, clast‐supported conglomerates; (2) on scoured or winnowed surfaces; and (3) on stratification planes. The grains are internally compact or porous, with truncation of internal structure at outer margins indicating fragmentation and rounding of pyritic source‐rocks during erosion and sediment transport. A large range in textures reflects source‐rock lithologies, with known varieties linked to sedimentary‐hosted diagenetic pyrite, volcanic‐hosted massive sulphide deposits and hydrothermal pyrite. Laser ablation sulphur isotope analysis of pyrite reveals a broader range in δ34S values (? 5·3 to + 6·7‰) than that of previously reported conventional bulk‐grain analyses (? 1 to + 4‰). Rounded pyrite from the Steyn Reef has significant variation in δ34S values (? 4·7 to + 6·7‰) that establishes heterogeneous sulphur compositions, with even adjacent grains having diverse isotopic signatures. The heterogeneity supports a placer origin for rounded pyrite. Euhedral pyrite and pyrite overgrowths which are undoubtedly authigenic have restricted δ34S values (? 0·5 to + 2·5‰), are chemically distinct from rounded pyrite and are probably the products of metamorphism or hydrothermal alteration. The placer origin of rounded pyrite indicates that pyrite was a stable heavy mineral during erosion and transport in the early atmosphere. Its distribution in three sequences (Witwatersrand Supergroup, Ventersdorp Contact Reef and Black Reef), and in other sequences not linked to Witwatersrand‐type Au‐U ore deposits, implies deposition of redox‐sensitive detrital heavy minerals during the Late Archaean. Consequently, rounded grains of detrital pyrite are strong indicators of an oxygen‐poor atmosphere. While not confirming a placer origin for gold in Witwatersrand Au‐U ore deposits, the palaeoenvironmental significance of rounded pyrite negates its link to hydrothermal mineralization.  相似文献   

15.
A polycrystalline grain of granitic composition with compound feldspar and quartz overgrowths is described from the continental Helsby Sandstone Formation (Triassic; Sherwood Sandstone Group) of the Cheshire Basin, northwest England. Overgrown phases, as seen by thin section and scanning electron microscopy, are in crystallographic continuity with respective components of the host grain and have mutual relationships which indicate the quartz to be the later diagenetic phase. Energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS) of the grain surface and of the earlier formed overgrowths indicates the feldspar to have a potassium aluminosilicate composition which is in accordance with the adularia-habit crystal form of the authigenic phase.  相似文献   

16.
K–Ar dating of illitic minerals is commonly used in studies of diagenetic series applied to oil prospecting. In spite of a great number of specialized papers, some problems remain unresolved. These are mostly due to a misunderstanding of the argon accumulation process during illitization. Criteria for identifying detrital–authigenic mineral mixtures, crystal ripening, fast precipitation or continuous nucleation‐growth processes are discussed using K–Ar data available in the literature. Using different parameters, such as Δage (ageK–Ar ? agestrati), Δcryst (diagenetic ageK–Ar ? agestrati) or Δfrac (ageK–Arfraction ?ageK–Arfinest), it is shown that the K–Ar age significance depends on the illite nucleation–growth processes. A ‘diagenetic age’ is obtained when these processes are rapid (the K2O accumulation period is shorter than 2σ). If lower than this value, the K–Ar ratio depends on the proportions of new and old particles, respectively, which are controlled by the relative rates of nucleation, crystal growth and ripening.  相似文献   

17.
K-Ar Dating of Fault Gouges from the Red River Fault Zone of Vietnam   总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1  
Constraining the timing of fault zone formation is fundamentally important in terms of geotectonics to understand structural evolution and brittle fault processes.This paper presents the first authigenic illite K-Ar age data from fault gouge samples collected from the Red River Shear Zone at Lao Cai province,Vietnam.The fault gouge samples were separated into three grain-size fractions(0.1 μm,0.1-0.4 μm and 0.4-1.0 μm).The results show that the K-Ar age values decrease from coarser to finer grain fractions(24.1 to 19.2 Ma),suggesting enrichment in finer fraction of morerecently grown authigenic illites.The timing of the fault movement are the lower intercept ages at 0%detrital illite(19.2 ± 0.92 Ma and 19.4 ± 0.49 Ma).In combination with previous geochronological data,this result indicates that the metamorphism of the Day Nui Con Voi(DNCV) metamorphic complex took place before ca.26.8 Ma.At about 26.8 Ma-25 Ma,the fault strongly acted to cause the rapid exhumation of the rocks along the Red River-Ailoa Shan Fault Zone(RR-ASFZ).During brittle deformation,the DNCV slowly uplifted,implying weak movement of the fault.This brittle deformation might have lasted for ca.5 Ma.  相似文献   

18.
富县探区上三叠统延长组成岩作用及孔隙结构特征   总被引:5,自引:1,他引:4  
根据薄片观察、扫描电镜及X—衍射资料的详细分析,富县探区延长组成岩作用已经普遍进入晚成岩A期,主要成岩作用有压实—压溶、胶结充填和溶解作用。压实—压溶及胶结充填作用是导致砂岩孔隙丧失的主要原因。其中碳酸盐、粘土矿物胶结物和石英、长石加大是造成砂岩物性降低的主要原因,碎屑颗粒周围形成的绿泥石衬边阻止了部分石英、长石次生加大及碳酸盐胶结物的沉淀,使部分原生粒间孔隙得以保存。晚期成岩阶段有机质分解形成的酸性流体及表生成岩作用阶段的大气降水使得碎屑部分碎屑长石和早期的浊沸石胶结物溶解是形成次生孔隙的主要原因。浊沸石胶结物主要发育在长3油层组,其原因是该层位长石碎屑含量高,并在成岩过程中蚀变形成浊沸石。高岭石在上部长2、长3油层组含量高,可能是印支期大气淡水淋滤对长石溶蚀并发生了高岭石化。孔隙类型以残余粒间孔和长石溶孔为主,划分出小孔细喉、小孔微细喉、小孔微喉、微细孔微细喉和微细孔微喉型五类孔喉结构,其中最后一种为无效储层。  相似文献   

19.
沉积岩中成岩伊利石年龄测定研究进展   总被引:5,自引:0,他引:5  
伊利石的形成与盆地的沉积和热演化有密切关系,它可以指示油气的形成时代,因此测定成岩伊利石的形成年龄是一个重要的课题。碎屑伊利石往往与成岩伊利石共生,导致样品的年龄远远大于成岩伊利石的真实年龄。为了有效地分离成岩和碎屑伊利石,需要使用IAA法和烷基胺阳离子取代法等,结合真空密封法等其他技术,能够得到更好的效果。并介绍了国外伊利石定年的研究现状。  相似文献   

20.
In the Ordos basin, two distinct thermal events of different ages have been identified for the first time by means of K-Ar dating combined with illite crystallinity analysis. For the Late Triassic and Late Permian samples, the K-Ar ages of the < 0.2μm fractions (159-173 Ma) reflect an illitization age related to the Yanshanian movement and indicate a short thermal event in the Middle Jurassic; the K-Ar ages of the <2 μm fractions (210-308 Ma) are interpreted as mixed ages of detrital material and authigenic illites. The K-Ar ages of both < 0.2μm and < 2μm fractions of a Middle Cambrian sample (368 Ma and 419 Ma) correspond to the ages of the metamorphism and earliest granite intrusion in the northern Caledonian Qinling fold zone (380-420 Ma) and show a thermal event during Silurian-Devonian time.  相似文献   

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