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1.
The Arabs acquired Greek geographical and astronomical knowledge in the eighth century, when the works of Ptolemy and other Greek philosophers were translated into Arabic. Muslim scholars learned Greek scientific thought and accepted these views as working theories necessary for further scientific inquiry. Muslim scholars were impressed by the Greek point of view, but they added to scientific knowledge in each succeeding generation. In the spirit of objective research, the scientific work of the Muslim scholars was progressive. They were ready to receive the truth from any source, even if that source be foreign. As Western thought became dominant in the Islamic areas in the thirteenth century, Muslim scholars' interest in geography and other natural sciences declined.  相似文献   

2.
Conclusion The fact that Arab and Muslim geographers had contributed in a substantial way to geographical thought is well-recognized by many scholars of international standing including orientalists. It has now also been proved beyond any doubt that Muslim geographic thought was transmitted through Spain (Andalusia), Italy and Sicily during the Middle Ages to Europe. The Muslims had more advanced culture than did most of medieval Europe, and had made great discoveries in various fields of study (Hasan 1967). They had also preserved many of the writings of ancient Greek, Roman and other oriental civilizations. It was through Spain that the Muslims made these works as well as their own contribution available for European scholars. The centres of learning in Muslim Spain were thriving, with scholars from many places and particularly so from Europe. As Arabic was the language of culture and learning, many books were translated from Arabic into Latin and other European languages including German, French and English (Ahmed 1947; Hasan 1967; Kish 1978; James & Martin 1981; Muhammadain 1988).It is also understood that when geographical works were not translated some of the ideas and concepts revealed in them were adopted in other translated works. With the final collapse of Muslim rule in Spain (1492 AD), Muslim intellectual centres were opened to Christians from all over Europe. Indeed, translations from Arabic into European languages continued well into the 16th century, and some of the translated books remained in use until the 17th century.To ignore, as did some writers, the contribution of Muslims to geography during the Middle Ages, and to claim that the European Renaissance developed independently of what was happening in the Islamic world, is to dismiss seven centuries of Muslim leadership of world culture. Surely, no one nation or group of people can claim all the achievements of our present civilization. Present-day civilization is actually the sum total of all the past human efforts which have been accumulated over the long years of man's existence on earth, and as such there can be no gaps in human cultural history. While accepting the fact that the contribution of the various groups of people to the advancement of culture has not been the same, all are participants and have shared in its building and development. By looking at human cultural history in this spirit, it would not be difficult to appreciate the positive role played by the Arabs and Muslims in the advancement of knowledge during the Middle Ages. One of these branches of knowledge, which we have been trying to explain in this essay, is geography. To put the contribution of Arab and Muslim geographers into even more perspective, one can say that their most outstanding and original contributions, as has been stated before, were in the field of regional and mathematical geography as well as surveying. Although most of the studies were concerned with regions or individual countries, some contributions were highly specialized dealing with only one topic, such as climate or plants. The regional approach is represented by the many books written with the title: Al-Masalik wa Al-Mamalik or Roads and Provinces, and those with the title: Al-Bilad or Countries. As has been indicated earlier in this essay, treatment in these regional studies has beencomprehensive covering almost all aspects of physical and human geography.To contemporary Muslim people the science of geography will continue to be as appealing as it was to their predecessors, partly because of religious needs and partly because of the Muslim love for his environment. To sum up, in the following quotations from the Holy Quran Muslims are asked to contemplate four things: qu]Do they not look At the Camels, How they are made? And at the sky, How it is raised high? And at the mountains, How they are fixed firm? And at the Earth, How it is spread out? (Holy Quran: Sura LXXXVIII, verses 17\2–20).The contemplation of these things does not only make Muslims sense the absolute powers of their Creator, but also makes them constantly aware of their geographical surroundings.  相似文献   

3.
Peter J. Taylor 《GeoJournal》2000,52(2):157-162
The influence of globalization on the future study of political geography is investigated through research on world cities. It is argued that political geography, like most social science, has been excessively state-centric in its organisation and that this will not help in understanding new transnational processes within contemporary globalization. Study of the state should not be abandoned, of course, but it must be set in a new context where much politics takes place beyond the state. This is illustrated through using the world city network as an alternative spatial framework to the world political map. The political geography of the twenty first century will have to incorporate traditional concern for political areas with new concerns for power networks in more subtle geographies than heretofore.  相似文献   

4.
The fallout from environmental determinism of the early 20th century steered geography away from biological and evolutionary thought. Yet it also set in motion the diversification of how geographers conceive environment, how these environments shape and are shaped by humans, and how scaling negotiates the interpretation of this causality. I illustrate how this plurality of scalar perspectives and practices in geography is embedded in the organism–environment interaction recently articulated in the life sciences. I describe the new fields of epigenetics and niche construction to communicate how ideas about scale from human and physical geography come together in the life sciences. I argue that the two subdisciplinary modes or ‘moments’ of scalar thinking in geography are compatible, even necessary, through their embodiment in organisms. To procure predictability, organisms practice an epistemological scaling to rework the mental and material boundaries and scales in their environment. Yet organisms are also embedded in ontological flux. Boundaries and scales do not remain static because of the agency of other organisms to shape their own predictability. I formally define biological scaling as arising from the interplay of epistemological and ontological moments of scale. This third moment of scale creates local assemblages or topologies with a propensity for persistence. These ‘lumpy’ material outcomes of the new organism–environment interaction have analogues in posthuman and new materialist geographies. They also give formerly discredited Lamarckian modes of inheritance a renewed, but revised acceptance. This article argues for a biological view of scale and causality in geography.  相似文献   

5.
The Croats were among the first peoples of Europe who established a state, and from the beginning of the tenth century they had their own kingdom, the first among the Slav peoples. By their language they belong to the Indo-European Slavic, or more precisely the South Slavic group of peoples, and by their cultural and religious orientation they belong to the Western European sphere of civilization. They settled their present homeland at the beginning of the seventh century. Their formation as a distinct ethnicity began in the early Middle Ages, and this on territory which was for centuries the meeting place of Greek and Roman culture, the Frankish and Byzantine Empires, and the Holy Roman (German) and Ottoman Empires. Here the world's three greatest religions also met: Catholicism, Orthodoxy and Islam. The Croats are Catholics and have always gravitated to the West. As one of the six republics of the former Yugoslavia, Croatia was on the border between the Western democratic countries and the Eastern communist world, between the countries gathered in NATO and those in the Warsaw Pact. Since becoming an independent and democratic state in 1991, the Republic of Croatia has been on the eastern border of Central Europe.  相似文献   

6.
Geographic knowledge is usually understood as the knowledge produced by geographers. Yet, it is also produced by people outside of the academia. But as Western science claimed for its exclusive self the status of ‘knowledge’, others have long been denied the production and possession of a true knowledge, and recognised merely the mastering of practical skills. The binary opposition between scientific and other forms of knowledge has been central to the construction of academic geography until the late 1980s, when postmodern thought cast some doubt on the universality of scientific knowledge. This led to critical analyses of academic geography, revealing its situatedness, as well as to a new interest for the geographies of the ‘Others’. Examining how geographers have dealt with other knowledge sets so far, and how they have labelled them, this paper argues that other geographies should be given more attention. This means focusing on the knowledges themselves, and considering implementing a true dialogue between these and academic geography. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.  相似文献   

7.
The first phase of geographical literature in Hungary covers the period from the end of the 12th century to the beginning of the 19th century. The language used by writers of various nationalities was Latin. The body of literature which emerged included works in which geography was not the only subject, but appeared in association with history, astronomy, cosmology, or cartography. The second phase covers the period prior to the foundation of the Hungarian Geographical Society and was for a considerable time influenced by the spirit of nationalism. The 100 year history of the Hungarian Geographical Society may be classified into the following four periods, which correspond to generations: 1. Period of explorations. 2. Investigation of the regions of the country and enquiry into general questions of geography prior to World War 1. 3. Chauvinistic attitude following World War 1. 4. The development of Marxist geography in Hungary. In the paper special attention is given to problems of fluvial morphology and river control.  相似文献   

8.
The Vikings and other settlers of Iceland immigrated during the 10th century not only for political reasons but also because they were seeking more spacious lands and thus a better standard of living. They found what they were searching for, and they and their descendants for some hundreds of years did live a relatively prosperous life. Eventually in the 15th century they suffered a series of setbacks. Poor living conditions were nothing unusual for the Icelanders in late medieval Europe, but this coupled with both the cool climate and the lack of timber for housing and heating, and for boat and shipbuilding made their lot an especially hard one. The 18th century was the darkest one in Icelandic history, and those acquainted with the problems doubted that the little nation could survive. But then, beginning in the 19th century and rapidly increasing in the 20th century, the urban evolution came about and brought with it a measure of progress. As a result, most Icelanders now live in towns, with over fifty percent living in Reykjavik and its environs. The effects of rural migration is one problem that persists in spite of the fact that the average income is now similar in most areas.  相似文献   

9.
Remains of dead bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva Bailey) are found at altitudes up to 150 m above present treeline in the White Mountains. Standing snags and remnants in two study areas were mapped and sampled for dating by tree-ring and radiocarbon methods. The oldest remnants represent trees established more than 7400 y.a. Experimental and empirical evidence indicates that the position of the treeline is closely related to warm-season temperatures, but that precipitation may also be important in at least one of the areas. The upper treeline was at high levels in both areas until after about 2200 B.C., indicating warm-season temperatures about 3.5°F higher than those of the past few hundred years. However, the record is incomplete, relative warmth may have been maintained until at least 1500 B.C. Cooler and wetter conditions are indicated for the period 1500 B.C.-500 B.C., followed by a period of cool but drier climate. A major treeline decline occurred between about A.D. 1100 and A.D. 1500, probably reflecting onset of cold and dry conditions. High reproduction rates and establishment of scattered seedlings at high altitudes within the past 100 yr represents an incipient treeline advance, which reflected a general climatic warming beginning in the mid-19th century that has lasted until recent decades in the western United States. This evidence for climatic variation is broadly consistent with the record of Neoglacial advances in the North American Cordillera, and supports Antevs' concept of a warm “altithermal age” in the Great Basin.  相似文献   

10.
Within universities there has developed a clear theoretical convergence between Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and geography (Antenuccl, 1991). Studies have revealed that one of the qualified departments to teach GIS within universities is the geography department. This study focuses on: the importance of establishing GIS as a major curriculum element within universities. In geography departments, economic geography students require a strong statistical/mathematical background to allow them to work with major databases. They should know how to design a specific database for economic activities, such as agriculture and manufacturing, and tertiary industry and how to relate this database to a map, so that changes can be monitored more accurately. In any aspect of geography spatial location is a key factor and GIS allows spatial patterns to be interpreted with great facility. Therefore it is important that students have a good knowledge not only of computers and related software on economic geography, but also on GIS systems (Burrough, 1993). The work of geography students from the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and other Gulf Co-operation Council (GCC) geography departments is examined to evaluate the importance of training in GIS technology. This paper evaluates the effects of implementing GIS as a tool in teaching economic geography. At present there are 15 geography departments in the GCC which offer economic geography. Of those 15 departments, only 3 provide GIS courses within their curriculum, and 4 have basic equipment, although 6 additional departments are to introduce GIS in the near future. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.  相似文献   

11.
Reforms are not new to school geography in the Soviet Union, having occurred in the 1930s, 1960s, and two times during the 1980s. During each reform there were two dominant concerns. First, there was the relationship of school geography to the social order and second, the relationship between school geography and the scientific discipline of geography as it was developing. The most recent reform, that of the late 1980s, promises to have far reaching implications for the teaching of geography. This is partly the result of perestroika, but also the recognition that geography is a significant field of scientific study in developing the student's fundamental knowledge of the world and related global issues. The combination of scientific approaches with the examination of social, environmental and other problem issues is recognized as a major objective of geography in the pre-collegiate education of Soviet students.  相似文献   

12.
On July 13, 2004, heavy rainfalls because of the intensive activities of the rain front occurred in the Mid-Niigata Region, Japan. They were as much as 400 mm in 24 h, bringing about serious flooding by breaking the river banks. The heavy rainfalls also triggered more than 3,500 landslides. Three months later, the southern region of Mid-Niigata was attacked by an earthquake of magnitude 6.8 on the Richter scale on October 23, 2004. The main earthquakes were followed by intensive aftershocks, which continued until December 2004. By these earthquakes, variable landslides of more than 4,400 also occurred in the hilly and mountainous areas. Namely, different triggers brought about the variable landslides in the hilly mountains whose features are very similar in geological and geomorphological points of view. Therefore, these two events are very useful for clearing the difference in features of the landslides between the two. We have been researching on both landslides in the field just after both occurred and later analyzing air photographs using the geographic information system (GIS). In this paper, we describe the comparison in the distribution features using GIS analytical data between the heavy rainfall-induced and the intensive earthquake-induced landslides.  相似文献   

13.
Several lines of evidence concur to explain the climatic fluctuations that occurred in the central region of Argentina during the last millennium. The investigation was advanced in two ways: on the one hand, a geographic model was elaborated; and on the other, a temporal sequence for various climatic situations was developed. During the last 1000 yr, two significant events related to global changes occurred: the Medieval Warm Period (MWP) and the Little Ice Age (LIA). The Medieval Warm Period was characterized by a humid and warm climate in the plains and recession of the Andean glaciers. In contrast, during the Little Ice Age the plains had temperate, semi-arid to arid climates, and Andean glaciers advanced. In the western region, the fluvial-lacustrine systems were more extensive during cold events (LIA) and contracted during warm events (MWP). In contrast, in the eastern region the fluvial-lacustrine systems showed a diminution during cold events and increased their extent during warm episodes. During the LIA, the occurrence of two cold pulses separated by an intermediate period has been established. The first cold pulse extended from the beginning of the XV century to the end of the XVI century; the second cold pulse (the main one) began at the beginning of the XVIII century and lasted until the beginning of the XIX century. Both cold pulses can be related to the Spörer and Maunder Minimums respectively. These climatic changes modified the landforms, influenced the vegetation distribution and were one of the main factors for control of human activities during the last 1000 yr.  相似文献   

14.
After twenty years of work on the geography of representations, how is it still possible to define geography as “the science of space”, ie as direct knowledge of material reality? This conception of the discipline — based on Cartesian precepts of evidence (eg the observer's independent certainty), reductionism (ie a disaggregation into sets of simple elements), causality (ie the presupposition of a linear linkage between cause and effect) and exhaustiveness (ie the certainty that nothing essential has been omitted) — has been thrown into question by the geography of representations' holistic approach. How can our scientific practices be separated from our interior existence with its affective and emotional aspects? Is not scientific action an extension of being? Mustn't the geographer, above and beyond the observation of concrete phenomena, also understand the subtle and complex — at times random and hidden — links which unite human beings and their life-space, be it from the viewpoint of the poet, or of all those who take alternative approaches to geography? What I would like to demonstrate is (1) how in an historically and socially given environment, the individual constructs his own reality in linking together the structural, functional and symbolic; (2) how the representation of the landscape is related to our existential experience; and (3) how the imaginary and the real are connected in each place.  相似文献   

15.
The purpose of this paper is to apply the framework of transnationalism to the study of the Akron, Ohio Greek community through the spatio-temporal changes in the residential patterns. Church records for the period 1930 to 2005 form the basis of the study. The first Greek immigrants arrived in Akron, Ohio in the latter part of the nineteenth century and settled around the commercial zone in the central city. Additional immigrants, mostly young males with little education, arrived during the early decades of the twentieth century to seek employment in the growing industries, especially the tire factories. The establishment of a sizable colony made it possible to form a parish church in close proximity to the place of work. In addition to the place of worship, ethnic stores, and coffee houses became foci of ethnic life. Although this central city cluster was undergoing minor residential shifts to the suburbs, it was identifiable until the early 1970s. By then most of its immigrant residents as well as their American born children moved to the suburbs, especially in the northwestern part of the city, because of economic improvement. Post-1965 immigrants bypassed the central city cluster and settled in the suburbs. Anecdotal information suggests that these immigrants, individually and collectively as a group, maintain a variety of economic, social, and cultural connections with their place of origin as well as the Akron Greek community. Thus, transnationalism is an appropriate framework to study recent immigrants who maintain concurrent connections to the United States and Greece.  相似文献   

16.
The interlayers of the cryptotephra of different episodes of the catastrophic eruption of the Baitoushan volcano (Paektu-san, Changbaishan-Tianchi) in the 10th century were discovered in the sedimentary cover of Amur Bay in the Sea of Japan by the geochemical and paleomagnetic characteristics. The petrochemistry of the volcanic glass indicates the possible occurrence of pyroclastic material in the B–Tm layer and more recent episodes that have not been identified before in the sediments of the Sea of Japan. The impact of the eruption on the bay environment is noted. It is shown that the medieval state of Balhae occupying vast areas and adjacent to the volcano no longer existed after the more earlier episodes of eruption.  相似文献   

17.
联合国教科文组织主办的《国际社会科学杂志》第150期（1996年12月）、第151期（1997年3月）出了两期地理学专辑,专辑反映了地理学的最新研究动态,对地理学的各主要分支学科的特点、现状和研究热点进行了评述。全球环境变化、环境灾害、社会—自然相互作用,社会经济活动的全球化、城市化和跨国公司等新的空间组织形式和新的区位选择过程、地理信息技术,这些都是目前地理学研究的主要课题,而且地理学的各个分支之间和地理学与其它学科之间的综合趋势正日益加强。  相似文献   

18.
Rado Genorio 《GeoJournal》1993,30(3):225-229
This article shows the geographical dimensions of Slovene emigration around the world from the middle of the nineteenth century to now. During the period 1857–1871 approximately 544,000 people emigrated from Slovenia and of those, more than half left before World War I. Such a population loss places Slovenia among those European countries which suffered the greatest damage on account of emigration. The beginnings of the mass exodus to foreign countries goes back to the time when the Slovene population entered the first phase of demographic transition. Despite the natural increase in the population, the actual increase was half smaller because of emigration. In general it is possible to differentiate between emigration which took place before World War I, emigration between the two world wars, emigration after World War II until the end of the fifties and emigration since the beginning of the sixties. More than a century of mass emigration is closely connected to the territorial contraction of the Slovene ethnic space, to the abandonment of farming and the departure of the agrarian population from the Slovene littoral, Dinaric karst and Subpannonian areas.  相似文献   

19.
Geography within England and Wales has undergone several important changes since its development as a school and university subject during the 19th century. The 1960s were an especially important period of major change with the introduction of scientific, conceptual elements to the field. Those changes were accompanied by several curriculum projects of national scope that brought the new geography to the classroom. In the 1980s, geography was recognized as a foundation subject, giving it renewed importance within the curriculum of the secondary schools. Government intervention has increased within most aspects of education, especially with regard to examinations and training for employment, thus placing greater strains upon the teaching force. Within the general framework of education, geography provides a unique perspective. As a discipline, it infuses a global dimension at the macro-level and a sense of place at the micro-level. That perspective is important since it bridges general knowledge of the discipline to social and environmental issues at various scales.  相似文献   

20.
Climate change on the Yucatan Peninsula during the Little Ice Age   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  
We studied a 5.1-m sediment core from Aguada X'caamal (20° 36.6′N, 89° 42.9′W), a small sinkhole lake in northwest Yucatan, Mexico. Between 1400 and 1500 A.D., oxygen isotope ratios of ostracod and gastropod carbonate increased by an average of 2.2‰ and the benthic foraminifer Ammonia beccarii parkinsoniana appeared in the sediment profile, indicating a hydrologic change that included increased lake water salinity. Pollen from a core in nearby Cenote San José Chulchacá showed a decrease in mesic forest taxa during the same period. Oxygen isotopes of shell carbonate in sediment cores from Lakes Chichancanab (19° 53.0′N, 88° 46.0′W) and Salpeten (16° 58.6′N, 89° 40.5′W) to the south also increased in the mid-15th century, but less so than in Aguada X'caamal. Climate change in the 15th century is also supported by historical accounts of cold and famine described in Maya and Aztec chronicles. We conclude that climate became drier on the Yucatan Peninsula in the 15th century A.D. near the onset of the Little Ice Age (LIA). Comparison of results from the Yucatan Peninsula with other circum-Caribbean paleoclimate records indicates a coherent climate response for this region at the beginning of the LIA. At that time, sea surface temperatures cooled and aridity in the circum-Caribbean region increased.  相似文献   

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