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1.
Estimating recent patterns of erosion and rock uplift within Cenozoic orogens has proven difficult as signals of these processes have been obfuscated by Plio‐Pleistocene glaciation. The topography of many mountain ranges integrates the effects of long‐lived rock uplift, Late‐Cenozoic climate variation, and post‐glacial landscape adjustment. In this study, we employ a suite of topographic analyses to study the relief of an active mountain range on a sub‐catchment scale in an effort to the separate the long‐term signal of rock uplift from perturbations due to shorter‐lived climate signals. We focus on the Olympic Mountains, USA, where patterns of exhumation and glaciation have been previously estimated; however, our methods and results are broadly applicable to other orogens. Our analysis shows that Plio‐Pleistocene alpine glaciers and the Cordilleran Ice Sheet have reduced the elevations of channel profiles and created anomalously low channel relief in the Olympic Mountains. Large low‐gradient areas formed at lower elevations where ice sheets were present and alpine glaciers widened and deepened valleys. In the more rugged core of the range, near‐threshold hillslopes along the margins of the oversteepened glacially‐carved valleys, dominate the range. This implies a strong Plio‐Pleistocene glacial climate control on the topography over the more recent evolution of the Olympic Mountains. However, the broad relief structure of the range appears to still record the regional rock uplift pattern and is suggestive of an east‐plunging antiform, consistent with folding of the subducting plate or underplating of accreted rocks. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.  相似文献   

2.
The recent loss of mountain glaciers in response to climate warming has been reported across a range of latitudes globally, but the processes involved are not always straightforward. In southern Pacific mid‐latitudes, twentieth‐century glacier fluctuations are thought to reflect the strength of westerly atmospheric circulation, which brings increased precipitation, leading to mass gains. We present a study of the response of Mangaehuehu Glacier, a cirque glacier on Mt Ruapehu, to climate over the last two decades. Glacier surface area fluctuated in size over this period, corresponding closely with mean end‐of‐summer snowlines in the Southern Alps. The key control on glacier extent appears to be ablation season temperature, itself controlled by regional atmospheric circulation, including El Niño‐Southern Oscillation, Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO), and to a lesser extent, Southern Annular Mode (SAM). Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.  相似文献   

3.
Debris cover on glaciers is an important component of glacial systems as it influences climate–glacier dynamics and thus the lifespan of glaciers. Increasing air temperatures, permafrost thaw and rock faces freshly exposed by glacier downwasting in accumulation zones result in increased rockfall activity and debris input. In the ablation zone, negative mass balances result in an enhanced melt-out of englacial debris. Glacier debris cover thus represents a clear signal of climate warming in mountain areas. To assess the temporal development of debris on glaciers of the Eastern Alps, Austria, we mapped debris cover on 255 glaciers using Landsat data at three time steps. We applied a ratio-based threshold classification technique and analysed glacier catchment characteristics to understand debris sources better. Across the Austrian Alps, debris cover increased by more than 10% between 1996 and 2015 while glaciers retreated in response to climate warming. Debris cover distribution shows significant regional variability, with some mountain ranges being characterised by mean debris cover on glaciers of up to 75%. We also observed a general rise of the mean elevation of debris cover on glaciers in Austria. The debris cover distribution and dynamics are highly variable due to topographic, lithological and structural settings that determine the amount of debris delivered to and stored in the glacier system. Despite strong variation in debris cover, all glaciers investigated melted at increasing rates. We conclude that the retarding effects of debris cover on the mass balance and melt rate of Austrian glaciers is strongly subdued compared with other mountain areas. The study indicates that, if this trend continues, many glaciers in Austria may become fully debris covered. However, since debris cover seems to have little impact on melt rates, this would not lead to prolonged existence of debris-covered ice compared with clean ice glaciers.  相似文献   

4.
Glaciokarst is a landscape which combines karst features and hydrology as well as inherited glacial features. It is a result of glaciation upon a karst geomorphological system. The relationship between glaciers and karst is rather poorly known and inadequately recognized. This research focuses on three distinct karst areas along the Adriatic coast in the southern Dinaric Alps that were affected by the Quaternary glaciations. An insight into specific glaciokarst processes and surface features was provided through the study of the areas of the Lov?en, Orjen and Vele? Mountains. A glaciokarst geomorphology is in general well preserved due to the prevailing vertically oriented chemical denudation following de‐glaciation and almost the entire absence of other surface processes. Typical glacial erosional features are combined by a variety of depressions which are the result of a karstic drainage of sub‐glacial waters. The majority of glacial deposits occur as extensive lateral‐terminal moraine complexes, which are often dissected by smaller breach‐lobe moraines on the external side of the ridge. Those moraine complexes are likely to be a product of several glacial events, which is supported by complex depositional structures. According to the type of glacial depositional features, the glaciers in the study areas were likely to have characteristics of moraine‐dammed glaciers. Due to vertical drainage ice‐marginal fluvial processes were unable to evacuate sediment. Fluvial transport between glacial and pro‐glacial systems in karst areas is inefficient. Nevertheless, some sediment from the glacier margin is washed away by the pro‐glacial streams, filling the karst depressions and forming piedmont‐type poljes. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.  相似文献   

5.
In order to understand the differences in the suspended sediment and total dissolved solid (TDS) yield patterns between the glacial and non‐glacial catchments at the headwaters of Urumqi River, northwestern China, water samples were collected from a glacier catchment and an empty cirque catchment within the region, during three melting seasons from 2006 to 2008. These samples were analyzed to estimate suspended sediment and TDS concentrations, fluxes and erosion rates in the two adjoining catchments. There were remarked differences in suspended sediment and TDS yield patterns between the two catchments. Suspended sediment concentrations were controlled mainly by the sediment source, whereas TDS concentrations were primarily related to the hydrologic interaction with soil minerals. Generally, the glacial catchment had much higher suspended sediment and TDS yields, together with higher denudation rates, than the non‐glacial catchment. Overall, glacial catchment was mainly dominated by physical denudation process, whereas the non‐glacial catchment was jointly influenced by physical and chemical denudation processes. The observed differences in material delivery patterns were mainly controlled by the runoff source and the glacial processes. The melting periods of glacier and snow were typically the most important time for the suspended sediment and TDS yields. Meanwhile, episodic precipitation events could generate disproportionately large yields. Subglacial hydrology dynamics, glaciers pluck and grind processes could affect erodibility, and the large quantities of dust stored on the glacier surface provided additional sources for suspended sediment transport in the glacial catchment. These mechanisms imply that, in response to climate change, the catchment behaviour will be modified significantly in this region, in terms of material flux. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.  相似文献   

6.
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7.
青藏高原上分布着大量的大陆性冰川,其对区域及全球气候变化响应极其敏感.工业革命以来,随着全球升温速率加快(特别是北半球),青藏高原部分地区的冰川在近百年显著退缩.冰前湖沉积物是最直接的冰川变化记录载体之一,但其沉积速率如何响应冰川及气候变化,能否反演冰川进退过程却知之甚少.本文依据~(210)Pb和~(137)Cs限定藏南冰前湖枪勇错QY5沉积岩芯的年龄,计算出不同深度沉积物的沉积速率,且与前人(QY-3)的沉积速率进行对比,揭示了近百年来枪勇错流域冰川变化历史及其与气温之间的关系.结果表明,枪勇错QY5近百年来的平均沉积速率为0.21 cm/a,比湖心(QY-3)快2倍左右,但两者的变化基本同步,高沉积速率对应温度上升期,是冰川退缩的直接响应:(1)1900—1960年,枪勇错沉积速率整体增加且变幅较大,与1890—1950年之间西藏温度波动式升高相对应,反映枪勇冰川总体处于退缩状态;(2)1960—1985年,沉积速率低且变幅较小,同期气温下降,枪勇冰川退缩程度相对较低且保持平稳;(3)1985年以来,枪勇错沉积速率呈上升趋势,是全球增暖下冰川显著退缩的直接响应.在短时间尺度内冰前湖沉积速率所揭示的枪勇冰川变化主要受控于温度,降水量对冰川变化的影响较小,但冰川对温度变化的响应滞后5～10 a.由于全球变暖和冰川对温度响应的滞后,在未来几十年高原冰川的融化速率可能会加快,亚洲水塔将面临着新的挑战.  相似文献   

8.
The glaciers on Tibetan Plateau play an important role in the catchment hydrology of this region. However, our knowledge with respect to water circulation in this remote area is scarce. In this study, the HBV light model, which adopts the degree‐day model for glacial melting, was employed to simulate the total runoff, the glacier runoff and glacier mass balance (GMB) of the Dongkemadi River Basin (DRB) at the headwater of the Yangtze River on the Tibetan Plateau, China. Firstly, the daily temperature and precipitation of the DRB from 1955 to 2008 were obtained by statistical methods, based on daily meteorological data observed in the DRB (2005–2008) and recorded by four national meteorological stations near the DRB (1955–2008). Secondly, we used 4‐year daily air temperature, precipitation, runoff depth and monthly evaporation, which were observed in the DRB, as input to obtain a set of proper parameters. Then, the annual runoff, the glacier runoff and GMB (1955–2008) were calculated using the HBV model driven by interpolated meteorological data. The calculated GMB fits well with the observed results. At last, using the temperature and precipitation predicted by climate models, we predicted the changes of runoff depth and GMB of the DRB in the next 40 years. Under all climate‐change scenarios, annual glacier runoff shows a significant increase due to intensified ice melting. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.  相似文献   

9.
The retreat of mountain glaciers and ice caps has dominated the rise in global sea level and is likely to remain an import component of eustatic sea‐level rise in the 21st century. Mountain glaciers are critical in supplying freshwater to populations inhabiting the valleys downstream who heavily rely on glacier runoff, such as arid and semi‐arid regions of western China. Owing to recent climate warming and the consequent rapid retreat of many glaciers, it is essential to evaluate the long‐term change in glacier melt water production, especially when considering the glacier area change. This paper describes the structure, principles and parameters of a modified monthly degree‐day model considering glacier area variation. Water balances in different elevation bands are calculated with full consideration of the monthly precipitation gradient and air temperature lapse rate. The degree‐day factors for ice and snow are tuned by comparing simulated variables to observation data for the same period, such as mass balance, equilibrium line altitude and glacier runoff depth. The glacier area–volume scaling factor is calibrated with the observed glacier area change monitored by remote sensing data of seven sub‐basins of the Tarim interior basin. Based on meteorological data, the glacier area, mass balance and runoff are estimated. The model can be used to evaluate the long‐term changes of melt water in all glacierized basins of western China, especially for those with limited observation data. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.  相似文献   

10.
Glacial lake outburst floods are among the most serious natural hazards in the Himalayas. Such floods are of high scientific and political importance because they exert trans‐boundary impacts on bordering countries. The preparation of an updated inventory of glacial lakes and the analysis of their evolution are an important first step in assessment of hazards from glacial lake outbursts. Here, we report the spatiotemporal developments of the glacial lakes in the Poiqu River basin, a trans‐boundary basin in the Central Himalayas, from 1976 to 2010 based on multi‐temporal Landsat images. Studied glacial lakes are classified as glacier‐fed lakes and non‐glacier‐fed lakes according to their hydrologic connection to glacial watersheds. A total of 119 glacial lakes larger than 0.01 km2 with an overall surface area of 20.22 km2 (±10.8%) were mapped in 2010, with glacier‐fed lakes being predominant in both number (69, 58.0%) and area (16.22 km2, 80.2%). We found that lakes connected to glacial watersheds (glacier‐fed lakes) significantly expanded (122.1%) from 1976 to 2010, whereas lakes not connected to glacial watersheds (non‐glacier‐fed lakes) remained stable (+2.8%) during the same period. This contrast can be attributed to the impact of glaciers. Retreating glaciers not only supply meltwater to lakes but also leave space for them to expand. Compared with other regions of the Hindu Kush Himalayas (HKH), the lake area per glacier area in the Poiqu River basin was the highest. This observation might be attributed to the different climate regimes and glacier status along the HKH. The results presented in this study confirm the significant role of glacier retreat on the evolution of glacial lakes. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.  相似文献   

11.
Four high mountain glacial basins of the northern and southern periphery of central Asia were studied to determine their interaction with the external hydrological cycle over the Eurasian continent. Two of them located in the northern periphery are closed drainage basins with continental climate and the other two are open basins located in the southern periphery. Calculations of mass energy exchange, glacial runoff and components of the hydrological cycles were conducted. For glaciers with a continental climate, the calculations of snow–ice melt and runoff were based on solar parameters. For glaciers with a marine climate regime, glacier melt and runoff were based on air temperature. The relative errors of simulated annual flows were, on average, 8–14%. The components of the regional hydrological cycles (precipitation, condensation, runoff and evaporation) were quantified for each glacial system and their share in total atmospheric moisture was determined. The closed basins of the northern periphery in central Asia stored annually about 0·1–2·4% of the total external atmospheric moisture in the Aralo-Caspian and Tarim hydrographic systems. About 0·22–0·24% of the external water cycle is transferred annually in open glacial basins of the southern periphery. The glaciers of these regions return 0·25–0·30% of the external water cycle per year to the Pacific and Indian oceans, 0·03% and 0·06% of this external moisture is taken from the glacial resources of the Gongga and Xixibangma glaciers. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.  相似文献   

12.
The observed retreat of several Himalayan glaciers and snow packs is a cause of concern for the huge population in southern Asia that is dependent on the glacial‐fed rivers emanating from Himalayas. There is considerable uncertainty about how cryospheric recession in the Himalayan region will respond to climate change, and how the water resource availability will be affected. As a first step towards quantifying the contribution of glacier‐melt water, hydrograph separation of River Ganga at Rishikesh into its constituent components, namely (i) surface runoff, (ii) glacial ice‐melt and (iii) groundwater discharge has been done in this paper. A three‐component mixing model has been employed using the values of δ18O and electrical conductivity (EC) of the river water, and its constituents, to estimate the time‐varying relative fraction of each component. The relative fraction of the surface runoff peaks (70–90%) during winter, due to the near‐zero contribution of glacial ice‐melt, essentially represents the melting of surface snow from the catchment. The contribution of glacial ice‐melt to the stream discharge peaks during summer and monsoon reaches a maximum value of ～40% with an average of 32%. The fraction of groundwater discharge varies within a narrow range (15 ± 5%) throughout the year. On the basis of the variation in the d‐excess values of river water, it is also suggested that the snow‐melt and ice‐melt component has a significant fraction derived from winter precipitation with moisture source from mid‐latitude westerlies (also known as western disturbances). Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.  相似文献   

13.
The ongoing debate over the effects of global environmental change on Earth's cryosphere calls for detailed knowledge about process rates and their variability in cold environments. In this context, appraisals of the coupling between glacier dynamics and para‐glacial erosion rates in tectonically active mountains remain rare. We contribute to filling this knowledge gap and present an unprecedented regional‐scale inventory of supra‐glacial sediment flux and hillslope erosion rates inferred from an analysis of 123 large (> 0·1 km2) catastrophic bedrock landslides that fell onto glaciers in the Chugach Mountains, Alaska, as documented by satellite images obtained between 1972 to 2008. Assuming these supra‐glacial landslide deposits to be passive strain markers we infer minimum decadal‐scale sediment yields of 190 to 7400 t km–2 yr–1 for a given glacier‐surface cross‐section impacted by episodic rock–slope failure. These rates compare to reported fluvial sediment yields in many mountain rivers, but are an order of magnitude below the extreme sediment yields measured at the snouts of Alaskan glaciers, indicating that the bulk of debris discharged derives from en‐glacial, sub‐glacial or ice‐proximal sources. We estimate an average minimum para‐glacial erosion rate by large, episodic rock–slope failures at 0·5–0·7 mm yr–1 in the Chugach Mountains over a 50‐yr period, with earthquakes likely being responsible for up to 73% of this rate. Though ranking amongst the highest decadal landslide erosion rates for this size of study area worldwide, our inferred rates of hillslope erosion in the Chugach Mountains remain an order of magnitude below the pace of extremely rapid glacial sediment export and glacio‐isostatic surface uplift previously reported from the region. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.  相似文献   

14.
Snow and glaciers are known to be important sources for freshwater; nevertheless, our understanding of the hydrological functioning of glacial catchments remains limited when compared with lower altitude catchments. In this study, a temperate glacial region located in the southeast margin of the Tibetan Plateau is selected to analyse the characteristics of δ18O and δD in different water sources and the contribution of glacier–snow meltwater to streamflow. The results indicate that the δ18O of river water ranges from ?16.2‰ to ?10.2‰ with a mean of ?14.1‰ and that the δD values range from ?117.0‰ to ?68.0‰ with a mean of ?103.1‰. These values are more negative than those of glacier–snow meltwater but less negative than those of precipitation. The d ‐excess values are found to decrease from meltwater to river to lake/reservoir water as a result of evaporation. On the basis of hydrograph separation, glacier–snow meltwater accounts for 51.5% of river water in the Baishui catchment in the melting season. In the Yanggong catchment, snow meltwater contributes 47.9% to river water in the premonsoon period, and glacier meltwater contributes only 6.8% in the monsoon period. The uncertainty in hydrograph separation is sensitive to the variation of tracer concentrations of streamflow components. The input of meltwater to a water system varies with local climate and glacier changes. The results confirm that hydrograph separation using water isotopes is valuable for evaluating the recharge sources of rivers, especially in ungauged glacial regions. This study provides insights into the hydrological processes of glacial catchments on the Tibetan Plateau, which is important for water resource management.  相似文献   

15.
Human‐accelerated climate change is quickly leading to glacier‐free mountains, with consequences for the ecology and hydrology of alpine river systems. Water origin (i.e., glacier, snowmelt, precipitation, and groundwater) is a key control on multiple facets of alpine stream ecosystems, because it drives the physico‐chemical template of the habitat in which ecological communities reside and interact and ecosystem processes occur. Accordingly, distinct alpine stream types and associated communities have been identified. However, unlike streams fed by glaciers (i.e., kryal), groundwater (i.e., krenal), and snowmelt/precipitation (i.e., rhithral), those fed by rock glaciers are still poorly documented. We characterized the physical and chemical features of these streams and investigated the influence of rock glaciers on the habitat template of alpine river networks. We analysed two subcatchments in a deglaciating area of the Central European Alps, where rock glacier‐fed, groundwater‐fed, and glacier‐fed streams are all present. We monitored the spatial, seasonal, and diel variability of physical conditions (i.e., water temperature, turbidity, channel stability, and discharge) and chemical variables (electrical conductivity, major ions, and trace element concentrations) during the snowmelt, glacier ablation, and flow recession periods of two consecutive years. We observed distinct physical and chemical conditions and seasonal responses for the different stream types. Rock glacial streams were characterized by very low and constant water temperatures, stable channels, clear waters, and high concentrations of ions and trace elements that increased as summer progressed. Furthermore, one rock glacier strongly influenced the habitat template of downstream waters due to high solute export, especially in late summer under increased permafrost thaw. Given their unique set of environmental conditions, we suggest that streams fed by thawing rock glaciers are distinct river habitats that differ from those normally classified for alpine streams. Rock glaciers may become increasingly important in shaping the hydroecology of alpine river systems under continued deglaciation.  相似文献   

16.
Mountain‐range topography is determined by the complex interplay between tectonics and climate. However, often it is not clear to what extent climate forces topographic evolution and how past climatic episodes are reflected in present‐day relief. The Andes are a tectonically active mountain belt encompassing various climatic zones with pronounced differences in rainfall, erosion, and glacier extent under similar plate‐boundary conditions. In the central to south‐western Andes, climatic zones range from hyperarid desert with mean annual rainfall of 5 mm/a (22·5°S) to year‐round humidity with 2500 mm/a (40°S). The Andes thus provide a unique setting for investigating the relationship between tectonics, climate, and topography. We present an analysis of 120 catchments along the western Andean watersheds between 15·5° and 41·5°S, which is based on SRTMV3‐90m data and new medium‐resolution rainfall, tropical rainfall measurement mission (TRMM) dataset. For each basin, we extracted geometry, relief, and climate parameters to test whether Andean topography shows a climatic imprint and to analyze how climate influences relief. Our data document that elevation and relief decrease with increasing rainfall and descending snowline elevation. Furthermore, we show that local relief reaches high values of 750 m in a zone between 28°S to 35°S. During Pleistocene glacial stages this region was affected by the northward shifting southern hemisphere Westerlies, which provided moisture for valley‐glacier formation and extended glacial coverage as well as glacial erosion. In contrast, the southern regions between 35°S to 40°S receive higher rainfall and have a lower local relief of 200 m, probably related to an increased drainage density. We distinguish two different, climatically‐controlled mechanisms shaping topography: (1) fluvial erosion by prolonged channel‐hillslope coupling, which smoothes relief, and (2) erosion by valley glaciers that generates relief. Finally, Our results suggests that the catchment‐scale relief of the Andes between 28°S to 35°S is characterized by a pronounced transient component reflecting past climatic conditions. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.  相似文献   

17.
The glacial process of cirque initiation, whereby small initial hillslope hollows grow by nivation until snow can form glacier ice, and ice motion then enlarges the hollow to a fully developed cirque, appears to have difficulty explaining the creation of large cirques in the time available during Quaternary glaciations, at the rates at which glaciers are reported to erode rock, and in rapidly uplifting mountain ranges. It also has difficulty explaining the striking proliferation of cirques in Fiordland, South Island, New Zealand, an area of harder rock and less glaciation than the nearby cirque‐poor area of South Westland. Here we show that cirques can be initiated as large, deep‐seated, often coseismic rock slope failure source area depressions in which snow may accumulate to form cirque glaciers, which can then remove detritus from, smooth, and enlarge the cirque. We present an example of a classically shaped cirque that has never held a glacier. We show that many similarities between the locations, sizes and shapes of rock slope failure source area depressions and cirques are understandable on this basis, as is the occurrence of cirques in presently aseismic intraplate locations and their relative paucity in actively uplifting ranges. The extent to which cirques may be of mass movement origin has implications for their value as palaeoclimatic indicators. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.  相似文献   

18.
Understanding the history of Antarctic glaciation is important for interpreting paleoclimatic changes and estimating the changes in climate, sea level, and ice volume in the future. Ice core studies of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS) and marine sediment cores from the entire Ross Sea have employed numerous proxies to reconstruct the glacial history of the Antarctic region. However, the ice and marine core records can be biased because of their specific locations, such as the uppermost accumulation zone or the terminus of the ablation zone, thereby introducing significant uncertainties in ice modeling. In this study, we analyzed 34 new 10Be and 26Al samples from four benches that were glaciated in the past by David glacier and incorporate the present ice-free flat surfaces. We suggest that the David glacier experienced monotonic and stepwise vertical lowering along the flanks of Mt. Priestley since the early Pleistocene. The uppermost bedrock benches on Mt. Priestley were exposed at 1.77 ± 0.32 Ma, with no evidence of subsequent overriding by readvancing ice. At Mt. Priestley, the David glacier has been characterized by a cold-based regime since 1.77 Ma, with a denudation rate of only ∼16 cm/Ma, corresponding to the regional transition from warm to cold-based glaciation at 3.5 Ma. Simple exposure ages from two lower benches date to Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 7 (234.1 ± 13.1 ka; 545 m asl) and MIS 4 (64.8 ± 13.7 ka; 222 m asl), suggesting that, since MIS 8, the overall lowering of glaciers has remained monotonic. The upper bench marks the lower limit of the MIS 8 glacial period and the upper limit of Penultimate Glacial Maximum (MIS 6), while the lower landform defines the upper limit of the last glacial period (MIS 4–2). The magnitude of Quaternary ice thinning at the David glacier was the highest (∼990 m) in the present terminal area (i.e., the most sensitive ablation zone), in contrast to the other outlet glaciers draining into the Terra Nova Bay, which experienced less ice lowering. The combination of the terrestrial (in situ 10Be and 26Al) and previous marine (authigenic 10Be) cosmogenic data used in our study document the history of lowering of the David glacier driven by climatic changes during the Pleistocene. Both deglaciation and glaciation were limited during the mid-Pleistocene transition (MPT) and prior to the mid-Bruhnes event (MBE), due to the prevailing cold and arid climate, whereas deglaciation was dominant during other warm periods.  相似文献   

19.
Glacial cirques are widely used palaeoenvironmental indicators, and are key to understanding the role of glaciers in shaping mountain topography. However, notable uncertainty persists regarding the rate and timing of cirque erosion. In order to address this uncertainty, we analyse the dimensions of 2208 cirques in Britain and Ireland and model ice accumulation to investigate the degree of coupling between glacier occupation times and cirque growth. Results indicate that during the last ~120 ka, cirques were glacier-free for an average of 52.0 ± 21.2 ka (43 ± 18%); occupied by small (largely cirque-confined) glaciers for 16.2 ± 9.9 ka (14 ± 8%); and occupied by large glaciers, including ice sheets, for 51.8 ± 18.6 ka (43 ± 16%). Over the entire Quaternary (i.e. 2.6 Ma), we estimate that cirques were glacier-free for 1.1 ± 0.5 Ma; occupied by small glaciers for 0.3 ± 0.2 Ma; and occupied by large glaciers for 1.1 ± 0.4 Ma. Comparing occupation times to cirque depths, and calculating required erosion rates, reveals that continuous cirque growth during glacier occupation is unlikely. Instead, we propose that cirques attained much of their size during the first occupation of a non-glacially sculpted landscape (perhaps during the timeframe of a single glacial cycle). During subsequent glacier occupations, cirque growth may have slowed considerably, with the highest rates of subglacial erosion focused during periods of marginal (small glacier) glaciation. We propose comparatively slow rates of growth following initial cirque development because a ‘least resistance’ shape is formed, and as cirques deepen, sediment becomes trapped subglacially, partly protecting the bedrock from subsequent erosion. In support of the idea of rapid cirque growth, we present evidence from northern British Columbia, where cirques of comparable size to those in Britain and Ireland developed in less than 140 ka. © 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. © 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.  相似文献   

20.
青藏高原内流区特殊的地理位置和自然环境使得对本区域冰川体积变化的研究相比中国西部其他冰川发育区难度大很多.而作为本区域重要水源补给,同时又是区域气候变化重要指示器的冰川,其储量的变化又是迫切需要获知的信息.在此前提下,本文基于RS、GIS技术平台提取了本区域冰川面积变化数据,并结合冰川目录数据、本区域冰川面积变化的研究资料,采用冰川体积与面积之间的统计关系模型,探讨了本区域冰川自1970年至2000年的体积变化.结果表明在这30年间,区域内冰川体积大约减少了36.25亿m3,相比整个高亚洲区域的冰川退缩速度,本区域冰川的退缩表现的更缓慢.然后,对内流区6个二级流域的冰川体积变化做了详细的对比分析,发现整个内流区冰川体积变化有较大的区域差别：其中5Z3流域冰川体积的退缩率最大,年均退缩率达-11.19%,而变化最小的5Z1流域年均变化率仅为-0.79%.各二级流域在体积变化方面的相同点是,体积退缩率均大于面积退缩率.通过对冰川面积、体积变化特点及其原因的分析,认为气候变化的区域差异是该区域内各二级流域冰川变化存在差异的主要原因.最后根据本文得到的结果,讨论了冰川体积变化对本区域的生态环境造成的影响.  相似文献   

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