共查询到20条相似文献，搜索用时 906 毫秒
1.
Margreet C. Vanzanten 《Boundary-Layer Meteorology》2002,102(2):253-280
A mixing fraction determines the relative amount of above-cloud-top air that has been mixed into a cloudy air parcel. A method, based on the use of mixing fractions, to calculate the cooling effects due to mixing, longwave radiation and phase changes at cloud top is derived and discussed. We compute cooling effects for the whole range of mixing fraction for two observed cases of the stratocumulus-topped marine boundary layer. In both cases the total radiative cooling effect is found to be the most dominant contributor to the negative buoyancy excess found at cloud top. The largest radiative cooling rates are found for clear-air parcels immediately adjacent to cloud top rather than inside the cloud. With the help of a simple longwave radiation model, we show this to be caused by clear-air radiative cooling due to the temperature inversion at cloud top. Further we show that flux profiles in the entrainment zone can be computed from data obtained from a horizontal level run that is half the time in cloud and half the time out of cloud. 相似文献
2.
Summary Leaf wetness duration (LWD) is related to plant disease occurrence and is therefore a key parameter in agrometeorology. As
LWD is seldom measured at standard weather stations, it must be estimated in order to ensure the effectiveness of warning
systems and the scheduling of chemical disease control. Among the models used to estimate LWD, those that use physical principles
of dew formation and dew and/or rain evaporation have shown good portability and sufficiently accurate results for operational
use. However, the requirement of net radiation (Rn) is a disadvantage foroperational physical models, since this variable
is usually not measured over crops or even at standard weather stations. With the objective of proposing a solution for this
problem, this study has evaluated the ability of four models to estimate hourly Rn and their impact on LWD estimates using
a Penman-Monteith approach. A field experiment was carried out in Elora, Ontario, Canada, with measurements of LWD, Rn and
other meteorological variables over mowed turfgrass for a 58 day period during the growing season of 2003. Four models for
estimating hourly Rn based on different combinations of incoming solar radiation (Rg), airtemperature (T), relative humidity
(RH), cloud cover (CC) and cloud height (CH), were evaluated. Measured and estimated hourly Rn values were applied in a Penman-Monteith
model to estimate LWD. Correlating measured and estimated Rn, we observed that all models performed well in terms of estimating
hourly Rn. However, when cloud data were used the models overestimated positive Rn and underestimated negative Rn. When only
Rg and T were used to estimate hourly Rn, the model underestimated positive Rn and no tendency was observed for negative Rn.
The best performance was obtained with Model I, which presented, in general, the smallest mean absolute error (MAE) and the
highest C-index. When measured LWD was compared to the Penman-Monteith LWD, calculated with measured and estimated Rn, few
differences were observed. Both precision and accuracy were high, with the slopes of the relationships ranging from 0.96 to
1.02 and R2 from 0.85 to 0.92, resulting in C-indices between 0.87 and 0.93. The LWD mean absolute errors associated with Rn estimates
were between 1.0 and 1.5 h, which is sufficient for use in plant disease management schemes.
Authors’ addresses: Paulo C. Sentelhas, Agrometeorology Group, Department of Exact Sciences, ESALQ, University of S?o Paulo,
P.O. Box 9, 13418-900, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil; Terry J. Gillespie, Agrometeorology Group, Department of Land Resource Science,
Ontario Agricultural College, University of Guelph, NIG-2W1, Guelph, ON, Canada. 相似文献
3.
Measurements of incoming global, diffuse and reflected radiation at a tower site in Lake Ontario are used to evaluate components of surface albedo. Albedo for diffuse radiation lies between 0.074 and 0.082 and a coefficient for backscatter from sub-surface water layers shows little deviation from a mean of 0.017. Direct beam albedo for a calm surface follows the Fresnel law. Waves increase direct-beam albedo particularly at higher solar zenith angles. A pronounced dependence of albedo upon zenith angle for clear skies decreases with increasing cloud amount and becomes undetectable in overcast conditions. On a daily basis, albedo ranged between 0.07 in early July to 0.11 in mid-November. Day-to-day scatter is within ±1% of the mean seasonal trend. 相似文献
4.
Summary Cloud parameters and surface radiative fluxes predicted by regional atmospheric models are directly compared with observations
for a 10-day period in late summer 1995 characterized by predominantly large-scale synoptic conditions. Observations of total
cloud cover and vertical cloud structure are inferred from measurements with a ground-based network of Lidar ceilometers and
IR-radiometers and from satellite observations on a 100 kilometer scale. Ground-based observations show that at altitudes
below 3 km, implying liquid water clouds, there is a considerable portion of optically non-opaque clouds. Vertical distributions
of cloud temperatures simultaneously inferred from the ground-based infrared radiometer network and from satellite can only
be reconciled if the occurrence of optically thin cloud structures at mid- and high tropospheric levels is assumed to be frequent.
Results of three regional atmospheric models, i.e. the GKSS-REMO, SMHI-HIRLAM, and KNMI-RACMO, are quantitatively compared
with the observations. The main finding is that all models predict too much cloud amount at low altitude below 900 hPa, which
is then compensated by an underestimation of cloud amount around 800 hPa. This is likely to be related with the finding that
all models tend to underestimate the planetary boundary layer height. All models overpredict the high-level cloud amount albeit
it is difficult to quantify to what extent due to the frequent presence of optically thin clouds. Whereas reasonably alike
in cloud parameters, the models differ considerably in radiative fluxes. One model links a well matching incoming solar radiation
to a radiatively transparent atmosphere over a too cool surface, another model underpredicts incoming solar radiation at the
surface due to a too strong cloud feedback to radiation, the last model represents all surface radiative fluxes quite well
on average, but underestimates the sensitivity of atmospheric transmissivity to cloud amount.
Received August 31, 2000 Revised March 15, 2001 相似文献
5.
The aim of this study was to reconstruct daily ultraviolet (UV) radiation (daily cumulation, similarly hereinafter) for nine observation stations in China, using a radiative transfer model combined with empirical relationships. Measurements of global total solar (G) radiation, UV radiation, and their ratio (UV/G) at the nine stations were analyzed for the period 2006–2011. The daily cloud and aerosol attenuation ratios were defined to quantitatively evaluate the effect of cloud and aerosols on radiation, based on measurements and simulated data under cloudless-sky conditions. A semi-empirical reconstruction method for UV radiation was established at each station using cloud modification factors, and by applying an equation that relates G and UV radiation measurements, as well as their corresponding simulations under cloudless conditions. Daily UV radiation values were reconstructed and compared with ground-based measurements for the nine stations, and the results revealed most of the slope values to be close to one, and the determination coefficients ranged from 89.5 to 95.7 %. The values of mean absolute bias error (MABE) and root-mean-square error (RMSE) were below 15 and 18 % for all stations, respectively, and at most stations were even lower than 10 %. A comparison of monthly measured and reconstructed UV radiation for the nine stations was also performed, revealing the values of MABE and RMSE to be even smaller with values of less than 5 %. According to these results, we conclude that the method established in this study has good applicability and transferability. 相似文献
6.
A method is described for evaluating the ‘partial derivatives’ of globally averaged top-of-atmosphere (TOA) radiation changes
with respect to basic climate model physical parameters. This method is used to analyse feedbacks in the Australian Bureau
of Meteorology Research Centre general circulation model. The parameters considered are surface temperature, water vapour,
lapse rate and cloud cover. The climate forcing which produces the changes is a globally uniform sea surface temperature (SST)
perturbation. The first and second order differentials of model parameters with respect to the forcing (i.e. SST changes)
are estimated from quadratic least square fitting. Except for total cloud cover, variables are found to be strong functions
of global SST. Strongly non-linear variations of lapse rate and high cloud amount and height appear to relate to the non-linear
response in penetrative convection. Globally averaged TOA radiation differentials with respect to model parameters are also
evaluated. With the exception of total cloud contributions, a high correlation is generally found to exist, on the global
mean level, between TOA radiation and the respective parameter perturbations. The largest non-linear terms contributing to
radiative changes are those due to lapse rate and high cloud. The contributions of linear and non-linear terms to the overall
radiative response from a 4 K SST perturbation are assessed. Significant non-linear responses are found to be associated with
lapse rate, water vapour and cloud changes. Although the exact magnitude of these responses is likely to be a function of
the particular model as well as the imposed SST perturbation pattern, the present experiments flag these as processes which
cannot properly be understood from linear theory in the evaluation of climate change sensitivity.
Received: 16 January 1997/Accepted: 9 May 1997 相似文献
7.
The relationship between monsoon cloud cover and incoming solar radiation in the Arabian Sea is examined utilising the available observations of daily mean total cloud amount and solar radiation collected during the summer monsoon. With these data sets, various cloud correction formulae are evaluated. For the estimation of solar radiation, the formulation of Laevastu (1960) is best, with a minimum error of -4%. A multiple polynomial regression equation based on cloud cover and noon altitude of the sun is developed for estimation of daily radiation. The error between estimated and observed radiation is -2%. 相似文献
8.
Summary Thin plate smoothing splines incorporating topographic dependence were used to interpolate daily global solar radiation in
the Bavarian forest ecosystem monitoring network, with the degree of data smoothing determined by minimizing the generalized
cross validation. A simple cross validation method was used to discuss the spatial distribution of mean relative errors at
18 forest climate stations. The results show that, from this network 14%–30% mean relative errors can be expected for most
of these forest climate stations in summer, and 20%–30% mean relative errors can be found at a few of forest climate stations
in winter. Time-averaging can reduce these interpolation errors. In this network a mean relative error of 10% can be expected
for weekly and biweekly mean solar radiation at most of forest climate stations in summer. Large errors are related to low
radiation amount under heavy cloud cover. Mean relative errors increase as daily global solar radiation decreases.
Received April 20, 1999 Revised January 20, 2000 相似文献
9.
国际卫星云气候计划ISCCP是国际上较权威和客观的云气候性研究计划, 自1983年以来为研究全球云和辐射平衡、云水资源分布等提供了有价值的数据。在分析总云量卫星和地面两种观测方式差异的基础上, 研究了1984-2006年ISCCP D2产品和我国地面观测云资料数据集总云量空间及时间差异。尽管两套资料能一致揭示我国总云量的分布形势和气候变化特征, 但区域性差异仍比较明显。天基、地基数据可对比格点上, 全国平均而言总云量卫星观测结果比地面观测偏高8.46%, 华南地区差异最小、东北地区差异最大。气候变化趋势分析结果表明:近23年我国总云量呈减少趋势, ISCCP D2产品总云量每年减少速度为0.015%, 小于地面观测的总云量每年减少速度 (0.063%); 东北地区总云量缓慢增多, 而青藏高原、西北地区总云量减少。利用卫星和地面资料均以累积距平法检测出1984—2001年总云量减少、2002-2006年总云量显著增加。 相似文献
10.
Summary The relationship between clouds and the surface radiative fluxes over the Arctic Ocean are explored by conducting a series of modelling experiments using a one-dimensional thermodynamic sea ice model. The sensitivity of radiative flux to perturbations in cloud fraction and cloud optical depth are determined. These experiments illustrate the substantial effect that clouds have on the state of the sea ice and on the surface radiative fluxes. The effect of clouds on the net flux of radiation at the surface is very complex over the Arctic Ocean particularly due to the presence of the underlying sea ice. Owing to changes in surface albedo and temperature associated with changing cloud properties, there is a strong non-linearity between cloud properties and surface radiative fluxes. The model results are evaluated in three different contexts: 1) the sensitivity of the arctic surface radiation balance to uncertainties in cloud properties; 2) the impact of interannual variability in cloud characteristics on surface radiation fluxes and sea ice surface characteristics; and 3) the impact of climate change and the resulting changes in cloud properties on the surface radiation fluxes and sea ice characteristics.With 11 Figures 相似文献
11.
Solar Radiation Climatology of Alaska 总被引：1，自引：1，他引：0
Summary There are only six locations in Alaska for which global radiation data of more than a year in duration are available. This
is an extremely sparse coverage for a state which covers 1.5×10&6 km2 and stretches over at least three climatic zones. Cloud observations are, however, available from 18 stations. We used fractional
cloud cover and cloud type data to model the global radiation and thus obtain a more complete radiation coverage for Alaska.
This extended data set allowed an analysis of geographic and seasonal trends.
A simple 1-layer model based on Haurwitz’s semi-empirical approach, allowing for changes in cloud type and fractional coverage,
was developed. The model predicts the annual global radiation fluxes to within 2–11% of the observed values. Estimated monthly
mean values gave an average accuracy within about 6% of the measurements. The estimates agree well with the observations during
the first four months of the year but less so for the last four. Changing surface albedo might explain this deviation.
Previously, the 1993 National Solar Radiation Data Base (NSRDB) from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) modeled
global radiation data for 16 Alaskan stations. Although more complete and complex, the NREL model requires a larger number
of input parameters, which are not available for Alaska. Hence, we believe that our model, which is based on cloud-radiation
relationship and is specifically tuned to Alaskan conditions, produces better results for this region. Annual global solar
radiation flux measurements are compared with results from global coverage models based on the International Satellite Cloud
Climatology Project (ISCCP) data. Contour plots of seasonal and mean annual spatial distribution of global radiation for Alaska
are presented and discussed in the context of their climatic and geographic settings.
Received July 16, 1997 Revised May 18,1998 相似文献
12.
Branislava Jovanovic Dean Collins Karl Braganza Doerte Jakob David A. Jones 《Climatic change》2011,108(3):485-517
A high-quality monthly total cloud amount dataset for 165 stations has been developed for monitoring and assessing long-term
trends in cloud cover over Australia. The dataset is based on visual 9 a.m. and 3 p.m. observations of total cloud amount,
with most records starting around 1957. The quality control process involved examination of historical station metadata, together
with an objective statistical test comparing candidate and reference cloud series. Individual cloud series were also compared
against rainfall and diurnal temperature range series from the same site, and individual cloud series from neighboring sites.
Adjustments for inhomogeneities caused by relocations and changes in observers were applied, as well as adjustments for biases
caused by the shift to daylight saving time in the summer months. Analysis of these data reveals that the Australian mean
annual total cloud amount is characterised by high year-to-year variability and shows a weak, statistically non-significant
increase over the 1957–2007 period. A more pronounced, but also non-significant, decrease from 1977 to 2007 is evident. A
strong positive correlation is found between all-Australian averages of cloud amount and rainfall, while a strong negative
correlation is found between mean cloud amount and diurnal temperature range. Patterns of annual and seasonal trends in cloud
amount are in general agreement with rainfall changes across Australia, however the high-quality cloud network is too coarse
to fully capture topographic influences. Nevertheless, the broadscale consistency between patterns of cloud and rainfall variations
indicates that the new total cloud amount dataset is able to adequately describe the broadscale patterns of change over Australia.
Favourable simple comparisons between surface and satellite measures of cloudiness suggest that satellites may ultimately
provide the means for monitoring long-term changes in cloud over Australia. However, due to the relative shortness and homogeneity
problems of the satellite record, a robust network of surface cloud observations will be required for many years to come. 相似文献
13.
The ability of a high resolution (T106) version of the ECHAM3 general circulation model to simulate regional scale surface radiative fluxes has been assessed using observations from a new compilation of worldwide instrumentally-measured surface fluxes (Global Energy Balance Archive, GEBA). The focus is on the European region where the highest density of observations is found, and their use for the validation of global and regional climate models is demonstrated. The available data allow a separate assessment of the simulated fluxes of surface shortwave, longwave, and net radiation for this region. In summer, the incoming shortwave radiation calculated by the ECHAM3/T106 model is overestimated by 45 W m–2 over most of Europe, which implies a largely unrealistic forcing on the model surface scheme and excessive surface temperatures. In winter, too little incoming shortwave radiation reaches the model surface. Similar tendencies are found over large areas of the mid-latitudes. These biases are consistent with deficiencies in the simulation of cloud amount, relative humidity and clear sky radiative transfer. The incoming longwave radiation is underestimated at the European GEBA stations predominantly in summer. This largely compensates for the excessive shortwave flux, leading to annual mean net radiation values over Europe close to observations due to error cancellation, a feature already noted in the simulated global mean values in an earlier study. Furthermore, the annual cycle of the simulated surface net radiation is strongly affected by the deficiencies in the simulated incoming shortwave radiation. The high horizontal resolution of the GCM allows an assessment of orographically induced flux gradients based on observations from the European Alps. Although the model-calculated and observed flux fields substantially differ in their absolute values, several aspects of their gradients are realistically captured. The deficiencies identified in the model fields are generally consistent at most stations, indicating a high degree of representativeness of the measurements for their larger scale setting. 相似文献
14.
Li Zongxing Feng Qi Zhang Wei He Yuanqing Wang Xufeng Norm Catto An Wenlin Du Jiankuo Chen Aifang Liu Li Hu Meng 《Theoretical and Applied Climatology》2012,109(1-2):305-321
Total hours of sunshine are one of the most important factors affecting climate and environment, and its long-term variation is of much concern in climate studies. Trends of temporal and spatial patterns in sunshine hours and related climatic factors over southwestern China are evaluated for the period 1961–2009 based on data from 111 standard meteorological stations. The results showed that southwestern China is experiencing a statistical decrease of sunshine hours, at the rate of 31.9 h/10a during 1961–2009. The decline was particularly strong in summer, whereas it is nonsignificant in winter. Spatially, statistically significant decreases of sunshine hours mainly occurred in lower altitude regions, especially in the Sichuan basin and Guizhou plateau. Sunshine hours have a high correlation with wind speed, relative humidity, precipitation, cloud cover, surface downwards solar radiation flux, and cloud water content, with wind speed showing the strongest relationship to sunshine hours, implicit in the close correlation (temporally and spatially) between the two variables. Changing water vapor and cloud cover influence sunshine hours in southwestern China. In addition, the increased surface downwards solar radiation flux also made some contribution to a rise of sunshine hours during 1991–2009. The larger decreasing trends of sunshine hours at urban stations than rural stations may reflect the effect of urbanization on sunshine hours. Variations are dominated by the comprehensive functions of multiple factors owing to the complex nature of effects on sunshine hours. 相似文献
15.
S. H. Franchito V. Brahmananda Rao R. Ramos da Silva 《Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics》1998,69(1-2):23-38
Summary A parameterization of shortwave and longwave radiation fluxes derived from detailed radiative transfer models is included in a global primitive equation statistical-dynamical model (SDM) with two bulk atmospheric layers. The model is validated comparing the model simulations with the observed mean annual and seasonal zonally averaged climate. The results show that the simulation of the shortwave and longwave radiation fluxes matches well with the observations. The SDM variables such as surface and 500 hPa temperatures, zonal winds at 250 hPa and 750 hPa, vertical velocity at 500 hPa and precipitation are also in good agreement with the observations. A comparison between the results obtained with the present SDM and those with the previous version of the model indicates that the model results improved when the parameterization of the radiative fluxes based on detailed radiative transfer models are included into the SDM.The SDM is used to investigate its response to the greenhouse effect. Sensitivity experiments regarding the doubling of CO2 and the changing of the cloud amount and height are performed. In the case 2×CO2 the model results are consistent with those obtained from GCMs, showing a warming of the climate system. An enhancement of the greenhouse effect is also noted when the cloud layer is higher. However, an increase of the cloud amount in all the latitude belts provokes an increase of the surface temperature near poles and a decrease in all the other regions. This suggests that the greenhouse effect overcomes the albedo effect in the polar latitudes and the opposite occurs in other regions. In all the experiments the changes in the surface temperature are larger near poles, mainly in the Southern Hemisphere.With 8 Figures 相似文献
16.
I. Foyo-Moreno I. Alados F. J. Olmo J. Vida L. Alados-Arboledas 《Theoretical and Applied Climatology》2001,68(1-2):41-50
Summary Knowledge of ultraviolet radiation is necessary in different applications, in the absence of measurements, this radiometric
flux must be estimated from available parameters. To compute this flux under all sky conditions one must consider the influence
of clouds. Clouds are the largest modulators of the solar radiative flux reaching the Earth’s surface. The amount and type
of cloud cover prevailing at a given time and location largely determines the amount and type of solar radiation received
at the Earth’s surface. This cloud radiative effect is different for the different solar spectral bands. In this work, we
analyse the cloud radiative effect over ultraviolet radiation (290–385 nm). This could be done by defining a cloud modification
Factor. We have developed such cloud modification Factor considering two different types of clouds. The efficiency of the
cloud radiative effect scheme has been tested in combination with a cloudless sky empirical model using independent data sets.
The performance of the model has been tested in relation to its predictive capability of global ultraviolet radiation. For
this purpose, data recorded at two radiometric stations are used. The first one is located at the University of Almería, a
seashore location (36.83° N, 2.41° W, 20 m a.m.s.l.), while the second one is located at Granada (37.18° N, 3.58° W, 660 m
a.m.s.l.), an inland location. The database includes hourly values of the relevant variables that cover the years 1993–94
in Almería and 1994–95 in Granada. Cloud cover information provided by the Spanish Meteorological Service has been include
to compute the clouds radiative effect. After our study, it appears that the combination of an appropriate cloudless sky model
with the cloud modification Factor scheme provides estimates of ultraviolet radiation with mean bias deviation of about 5%
that is close to experimental errors. Comparisons with similar formulations of the cloud radiative effect over the whole solar
spectrum provides evidence for the spectral dependency of the cloud radiative effect.
Received November 15, 1999 Revised September 11, 2000 相似文献
17.
利用毫米波云雷达、微波辐射计联合反演方法,对2015年11月11日安徽寿县的一次层状云过程的云参数进行了反演,将所得云参数加入到SBDART辐射传输模式中,进行辐射通量计算,并将计算的地面辐射通量与观测的地面辐射通量进行了对比分析。研究表明:1)利用毫米波雷达和微波辐射计数据联合反演的云参数比较可靠;2)利用SBDART模式并结合反演的云参数,可以准确实时地计算地面及其他高度层的长短波辐射通量;3)在反演的云参数中,光学厚度对地面各种辐射通量的影响是最大的,云层的光学厚度越大,到达地面的太阳短波辐射越小,地面反射短波辐射也越小。另外云底温度越高,云体向下发射的红外长波辐射越大。地面向上的长波辐射是地面温度的普朗克函数,随地面温度而变;4)云对地面的短波辐射强迫为负值,对地面有降温的作用。云对地面的长波辐射强迫是一个正值,对地面有一个增温的作用;5)云对地面的净辐射强迫随时间变化很大,它的正负与太阳高度角和云参数有关。 相似文献
18.
Surface radiation budget at Barrow,Alaska 总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2
Summary At Barrow, the most northerly point in the U.S., radiation measurements were carried out. It was found that multiple reflection between the ground and stratus clouds, due to high surface albedo in winter, enhances the global radiation. These measurements are in agreement with model results. This, together with cloud amount, makes effective transmittance of the atmosphere highest in spring, resulting in the highest values of irradiation in May. For the same cloud amount, the effective transmittance of the atmosphere is always larger in winter, when there is a highly reflective surface, than in summer.Irradiation on a south slope, inclined to latitude (71°) and south wall was higher in spring and fall, but lower than the horizontal in summer. The annual mean was not substantially different for all three surfaces.The net radiation was positive for only three months (June, July, and August). May, with the largest amount of global radiation, displayed values around zero. The high surface albedo reflects most of the incoming radiation back to space, indicating that the net radiation is more controlled by the albedo than by the incoming global radiation.With 11 Figures 相似文献
19.
20.
This study performs a comprehensive feedback analysis on the Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre General Circulation Model,
quantifying all important feedbacks operating under an increase in atmospheric CO2. The individual feedbacks are analysed in detail, using an offline radiation perturbation method, looking at long- and shortwave
components, latitudinal distributions, cloud impacts, non-linearities under 2xCO2 and 4xCO2 warmings and at interannual variability. The water vapour feedback is divided into terms due to moisture height and amount
changes. The net cloud feedback is separated into terms due to cloud amount, height, water content, water phase, physical
thickness and convective cloud fraction. Globally the most important feedbacks were found to be (from strongest positive to
strongest negative) those due to water vapour, clouds, surface albedo, lapse rate and surface temperature. For the longwave
(LW) response the most important term of the cloud ‘optical property’ feedbacks is due to the water content. In the shortwave
(SW), both water content and water phase changes are important. Cloud amount and height terms are also important for both
LW and SW. Feedbacks due to physical cloud thickness and convective cloud fraction are found to be relatively small. All cloud
component feedbacks (other than height) produce conflicting LW/SW feedbacks in the model. Furthermore, the optical property
and cloud fraction feedbacks are also of opposite sign. The result is that the net cloud feedback is the (relatively small)
product of conflicting physical processes. Non-linearities in the feedbacks are found to be relatively small for all but the
surface albedo response and some cloud component contributions. The cloud impact on non-cloud feedbacks is also discussed:
greatest impact is on the surface albedo, but impact on water vapour feedback is also significant. The analysis method here
proves to be a␣powerful tool for detailing the contributions from different model processes (and particularly those of the
clouds) to the final climate model sensitivity.
Received: 15 June 2000 / Accepted: 10 January 2001 相似文献