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1.
Off‐reef planktivorous reef fishes respond positively to decadal‐scale no‐take marine reserve protection and negatively to benthic habitat change 
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下载免费PDF全文 The effects of no‐take marine reserve (NTMR) protection and changes in benthic habitat on fusiliers (family Caesionidae) were investigated at four small Philippine offshore islands on time scales of 10–31 years. Fusiliers are highly mobile, schooling, medium‐sized planktivorous fish that generally feed “off‐reef.” For these reasons, and given the small size of the NTMRs (3.6–37.5 ha) in this study, it was predicted that fusilier density would be unlikely to show clear effects of NTMR protection, or to respond to changes in benthic habitat. In contrast to predictions, clear NTMR effects were observed on fusilier density at three of the four NTMRs, with durations of protection from 14 to 31 years. Furthermore, the study provided strong evidence that benthic variables, specifically cover of live hard coral and dead substratum, affect the density of fusiliers. This effect of benthic habitat on density was highlighted by several major environmental disturbances that caused shifts in the benthic habitat from live hard coral to dead substratum. For two of the three most abundant species of fusiliers individually, and for all three of them combined (Pterocaesio pisang + Caesio caerulaurea + Pterocaesio digramma/tessellata), as live hard coral cover decreased, fish density decreased. It is hypothesized that these “off‐reef” daytime feeders may have such a strong association with live hard coral cover because they use this habitat as nocturnal sleeping sites. Multivariate analyses indicated that, across all sites and times sampled, cover of live hard coral and dead substratum accounted for 38% of the variation in fish assemblage structure. These results are important as there are very few reports in the published literature of strong effects of NTMR protection or changes in benthic habitat on the density and assemblage structure of fusiliers. 相似文献
2.
As elsewhere in Indonesia, local inhabitants in the Pangkajene and Kepulauan (PANGKEP) Regency, Spermonde Archipelago area and along the south-west coast of Sulawesi traditionally regard the coral reefs as their livelihood source. Since human activities as well as natural disturbances pose major threats to the coral reefs, these livelihoods may also be at risk. Currently, no comprehensive information on the status and condition of coral reefs in this area is available for this resource management. We determined the changes of coral reef habitat over a period of 20 years from 1994 to 2014 using a satellite Landsat multi-temporal image substantiated with in situ measurement data collected in 2014. The spectral value of coral reefs was extracted from multi-temporal Landsat imagery data, while the diffuse attenuation coefficient of water was obtained by using statistical analysis between the ratio of live coral cover and the spectral value of the visible bands. By using the unsupervised classification integrated with the data ground truth, it is stated that there has been a decline in live coral cover over a period of 20 years from 7716 ha in 1994 to 4236 ha in 2014, with a degradation rate of 174 ha/year. Based on the results, the ratio of the coral cover in the coral reef transects varied from the average of 24% for live corals to 96% for coral rubbles, implying the degraded status of coral reefs in the study area. 相似文献
3.
Evidence of a phase shift to Epizoanthus gabrieli Carlgreen, 1951 (Order Zoanthidea) and loss of coral cover on reefs in the Southwest Atlantic 下载免费PDF全文
下载免费PDF全文 Igor C. S. Cruz Ruy K. P. de Kikuchi Leila L. Longo Joel C. Creed 《Marine Ecology》2015,36(3):318-325
There is at present a ‘coral reef crisis’; one of the more drastic consequences of this is a phase shift, in which reef‐building corals are replaced by non‐reef building benthos such as macroalgae and soft corals. Previous studies have principally focused on the shift to macroalgae. Our goal was to investigate whether the dominance of the zoanthid Epizoanthus gabrieli on some reefs of Todos os Santos Bay, Brazil, represented a non‐algal phase shift. In 2003, we identified a high cover of this species on two reefs (52% and 70%), but only in 2007 was it possible to confirm a reduction in coral cover. This dominance has persisted for over 9 years, characterizing a true phase shift. This loss of coral cover may be a result of anthropogenic disturbances within the bay; however, given the large number of human impacts, further studies are needed to identify specific causes of this shift. Although there are some reports of phase shift involving species pertaining to the Class Anthozoa, this is the first report of this phenomenon involving the order Zoanthidea. 相似文献
4.
在全球珊瑚礁生态系统面临退化威胁的情况下,珊瑚礁生态修复工作成为人类帮助珊瑚礁恢复健康的重要手段之一,并且在全球各个珊瑚礁区域都得到广泛应用。我国近岸珊瑚礁生态系统退化严重,本实验探讨利用珊瑚移植技术在三亚市蜈支洲岛典型的近岸珊瑚礁环境下恢复造礁石珊瑚的覆盖率,希望推动企业参与海洋生态保护并从中受益。在与当地旅游公司的合作下,2017年6月移植6000株包括风信子鹿角珊瑚(Acropora hyacinthus)、美丽鹿角珊瑚(A.muricata)等8种造礁石珊瑚。经过3 a的生长,移植珊瑚的平均存活率为61.3%,修复区域造礁石珊瑚平均覆盖率从9.3%提升到35.3%,珊瑚覆盖率的提升主要归结于移植珊瑚个体的生长。从恢复效果来看,本次实验有效地恢复了珊瑚礁的珊瑚覆盖率,修复区域内珊瑚礁不仅健康状况有所恢复,同时水下景观得到改善,带动了相关企业参与海洋生态保护的积极性。本次研究结果证明了在我国近岸退化珊瑚礁中利用生态修复技术恢复珊瑚礁生态是可行和有效的。 相似文献
5.
海岸景观由于其边缘效应而具有较高的生产力和生物多样性水平,本区热带海岸景观尤其如此,由于发育有我国大陆唯一的珊瑚礁而更具独特。选择这块位于雷州半岛西南部灯楼角的热带海岸,根据景观生态学的研究方法,利用景观生态格局和景观破碎化的一些指标,具体分析该研究区的景观生态结构。结果显示,该区斑块大小变异很大,空间格局的基本构型以大斑块为主体,如台地坡地旱田、平川水田和沿岸珊瑚礁景观,其他的小斑块嵌于其中。随着人类干扰强度增加,景观多样性下降,优势度增高。该区景观的破碎化程度较低。 相似文献
6.
J. Scoplitis S. Andrfouët S. Phinn P. Chabanet O. Naim C. Tourrand T. Done 《Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science》2009,84(3):342-352
Monitoring coral reef communities at a decadal scale is necessary to understand and project their dynamics to provide a basis for reef management in light of disturbances and climate change. Complementing infrequent and localised in situ observations, time-series of aerial photographs and remotely sensed satellite images provide a means of monitoring the position and extent of reef-top coral communities, vegetation and abiotic substrata at the whole reef scale. The aim of the present study was to map such changes on Saint-Leu Reef (La Réunion) between 1973 and 2007. The period included two cyclones (1989, 2002) and one severe bleaching event (2002). Vertical images of the reef were recorded in five aerial photographs (1973, 1978, 1989, 1997, and 2003) and two Quickbird satellite images (2002, 2006) during that time. Quantitative in situ observations of parts of the reef-top were also available both to document ecological and substratum characteristics that produce the color and texture observable in the photos and satellite images. Coral communities were mapped on all images using manual delineation of polygons identified according to color and texture contrast. The 2006 Quickbird image was used as the mapping base and 15 types of coral communities were identified from a reef survey conducted in 2007. This hierarchical typology used coral growth forms, live and dead coral cover, macro-algae, substratum (sand, rubble and platform) and, to a lesser extent, coral taxonomy. The polygons at date t were over-laid onto image t − 1 across the whole series and their boundaries were manually edited to match the pattern on the earlier image. Labelling of polygons was guided by field-survey data and maps. For coral-dominated patches, six successive pairs of maps from 1973 to 2006 were compared to produce ‘coral community change maps’ for that period. Despite the multiple disturbance events, the coral community distribution and composition in 2006 on Saint-Leu Reef did not display major differences compared to 1973. This suggests a high degree of coral resilience at the site, led by rapid recovery of compact branching corals. The mapping techniques overcame challenges due to different image quality and the sparsity of in situ observations in time and space. Our results demonstrate the potential for further application of reef monitoring protocols based on complementary in situ and remote-sensing data to help understand the dynamics of reef-top coral reef communities and geomorphology over years to decades. 相似文献
7.
Coral mining for use as construction material is a major cause of reef degradation in several coastal nations. We studied the long-term impact of coral mining at the Wakatobi marine park, Indonesia, where a substantial mining event was undertaken two decades ago in order to supply building material for a jetty. The mined area shows significant differences in reef viability compared to a control reef 1000 m away: the percentage of dead coral in the substrate, the percentage of live coral coverage, the species richness and abundance of hard corals are all greatly reduced. For the most part, soft corals and other (non-coral) invertebrates do not show significant differences in richness, abundance or diversity, but their species composition differs greatly: the control site abounds giant clams, whereas these are absent at the mined site; instead, the dominant species there is Strombus, an algae-grazing gastropod associated with stressed reefs. We conclude that the mined reef flat failed to recover from the severe mining event, despite being un-mined for over 20 years. Our results demonstrate that without effective management and enforcement, coral mining may cause a long-term, destructive impact on the coral reef ecosystem. We propose the following management steps: first, law enforcement measures must become more stringent; second, alternative income sources such as aquaculture, ecotourism, or even land-based alternatives need to be actively promoted and financed; third, alternative building materials such as landrock and concrete should become more accessible and affordable; and fourth, education and awareness regarding both the MPA regulations and the environmental impact of coral mining have to be strengthened. 相似文献
8.
Gustavo Arias‐Godínez Carlos Jimnez Carlos Gamboa Jorge Corts Mario Espinoza Juan Jos Alvarado 《Marine Ecology》2019,40(1)
Benthic structure of coral reefs determines the availability of refuges and food sources. Therefore, structural changes caused by natural and anthropogenic disturbances can have negative impacts on reef‐associated communities. During the 1990s, coral reefs from Bahía Culebra were considered among the most diverse ecosystems along the Pacific coast of Costa Rica; however, recently they have undergone severe deterioration as consequence of chronic stressors such as El Niño‐Southern Oscillation and harmful algal blooms. Reef fish populations in this area have also been intensely exploited. This study compared reef fish assemblages during two periods (1995–1996 and 2014–2016), to determine whether they have experienced changes as a result of natural and anthropogenic disturbances. For both periods, benthic composition and reef fish abundance were recorded using underwater visual censuses. Live coral cover (LCC) decreased from 43.09 ± 18.65% in 1995–1996 to 1.25 ± 2.42% in 2014–2016 (U = 36, p < 0.05). Macroalgal cover (%) in 2014–2016 was sixfold higher than mean values reported for the Eastern Tropical Pacific region. Mean (±SD) fish species richness in 1995–1996 (36.67 ± 14.20) was higher than in 2014–2016 (23.00 ± 9.14; U = 20, p < 0.05). Over 40% of reef fish orders observed in 1995–1996 were not detected in the 2014–2016 surveys, including large‐bodied predators. Reduction in abundance of fish predators such as sharks, grunts, and snappers is likely attributed to changes in habitat structure. Herbivorous such as parrotfishes and pufferfishes increased their abundance at sites with low LCC, probably in response to predators decline and increased algal cover. These findings revealed significant degradation and drastic loss of structural complexity in coral reefs from Bahía Culebra, which now are dominated by macroalgae. The large reduction in structural complexity of coral reefs has resulted in the loss of diversity and key ecological roles (e.g., predation and herbivory), thus potentially reducing the resilience of the entire ecosystem. 相似文献
9.
《Ocean & Coastal Management》2006,49(9-10):696-705
Coral Cay Conservation, a United Kingdom-based not-for-profit organization, operates using teams of international volunteers to conduct coral reef and tropical marine resource assessments in order to provide a baseline of data to facilitate marine resource management. This modus operandi provides the resources necessary to conduct a detailed study at minimal cost to the host country partners.This paper introduces a technique of data analysis to define the conservation value of the shallow (<30 m) tropical coastal environment. All data initially undergoes multivariate analysis to define discrete benthic habitat classes using the methods described by Mumby and Harborne [Development of a systematic classification scheme of marine habitats to facilitate regional management and mapping of Caribbean coral reefs. Biological Conservation 1999;88:155–63]. Subsequent analysis of benthic and reef fish data in terms of biodiversity and reef health indices allows spatial comparison of sites of differing conservation value and the geographic delineation of areas suitable for Marine Protected Area status. 相似文献
10.
11.
Climate change and coral reef bleaching: An ecological assessment of long-term impacts,recovery trends and future outlook 总被引：2，自引：0，他引：2
Since the early 1980s, episodes of coral reef bleaching and mortality, due primarily to climate-induced ocean warming, have occurred almost annually in one or more of the world's tropical or subtropical seas. Bleaching is episodic, with the most severe events typically accompanying coupled ocean–atmosphere phenomena, such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), which result in sustained regional elevations of ocean temperature. Using this extended dataset (25+ years), we review the short- and long-term ecological impacts of coral bleaching on reef ecosystems, and quantitatively synthesize recovery data worldwide. Bleaching episodes have resulted in catastrophic loss of coral cover in some locations, and have changed coral community structure in many others, with a potentially critical influence on the maintenance of biodiversity in the marine tropics. Bleaching has also set the stage for other declines in reef health, such as increases in coral diseases, the breakdown of reef framework by bioeroders, and the loss of critical habitat for associated reef fishes and other biota. Secondary ecological effects, such as the concentration of predators on remnant surviving coral populations, have also accelerated the pace of decline in some areas. Although bleaching severity and recovery have been variable across all spatial scales, some reefs have experienced relatively rapid recovery from severe bleaching impacts. There has been a significant overall recovery of coral cover in the Indian Ocean, where many reefs were devastated by a single large bleaching event in 1998. In contrast, coral cover on western Atlantic reefs has generally continued to decline in response to multiple smaller bleaching events and a diverse set of chronic secondary stressors. No clear trends are apparent in the eastern Pacific, the central-southern-western Pacific or the Arabian Gulf, where some reefs are recovering and others are not. The majority of survivors and new recruits on regenerating and recovering coral reefs have originated from broadcast spawning taxa with a potential for asexual growth, relatively long distance dispersal, successful settlement, rapid growth and a capacity for framework construction. Whether or not affected reefs can continue to function as before will depend on: (1) how much coral cover is lost, and which species are locally extirpated; (2) the ability of remnant and recovering coral communities to adapt or acclimatize to higher temperatures and other climatic factors such as reductions in aragonite saturation state; (3) the changing balance between reef accumulation and bioerosion; and (4) our ability to maintain ecosystem resilience by restoring healthy levels of herbivory, macroalgal cover, and coral recruitment. Bleaching disturbances are likely to become a chronic stress in many reef areas in the coming decades, and coral communities, if they cannot recover quickly enough, are likely to be reduced to their most hardy or adaptable constituents. Some degraded reefs may already be approaching this ecological asymptote, although to date there have not been any global extinctions of individual coral species as a result of bleaching events. Since human populations inhabiting tropical coastal areas derive great value from coral reefs, the degradation of these ecosystems as a result of coral bleaching and its associated impacts is of considerable societal, as well as biological concern. Coral reef conservation strategies now recognize climate change as a principal threat, and are engaged in efforts to allocate conservation activity according to geographic-, taxonomic-, and habitat-specific priorities to maximize coral reef survival. Efforts to forecast and monitor bleaching, involving both remote sensed observations and coupled ocean–atmosphere climate models, are also underway. In addition to these efforts, attempts to minimize and mitigate bleaching impacts on reefs are immediately required. If significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions can be achieved within the next two to three decades, maximizing coral survivorship during this time may be critical to ensuring healthy reefs can recover in the long term. 相似文献
12.
《Ocean & Coastal Management》2006,49(1-2):68-92
This paper addresses development and problems of the legislative framework for coastal and coral reef resources management in Indonesia. It describes the background to the legal framework of Indonesian coastal and coral reef legislation and proposes an appropriate legal framework for addressing Indonesian coastal and coral reef management. This paper outlines several major challenges faced by the Indonesian legislators. It reviews some of the justifications of creating an appropriate legal framework for coastal management.It argues that an adequate and appropriate legal framework will promote sustainable development and management of coastal and coral reef resources. It argues that, the complicated and inappropriate legal framework currently place in Indonesia has contributed to serious degradation of coastal and marine resources. It also argues that this degradation has been exacerbated by the lack of a national marine policy, severe weaknesses in law enforcement of natural resource including those of the fisheries laws and regulations in Indonesia. This paper suggests that there is a general malaise or lack of commitment to sustainable management and development of natural resources. This paper also focuses on the political aspects and their impacts on legislation for coastal and coral reef management at the national and selected regional levels. 相似文献
13.
Ismael A. Kimirei Ivan Nagelkerken Ben Griffioen Coen Wagner Yunus D. Mgaya 《Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science》2011
Tropical shallow-water habitats such as mangroves and seagrass beds are widely acknowledged as important juvenile habitats for various coral reef fish species, most of which are commercially important to fisheries. Spatio-temporal variability in ontogenetic habitat use by fish among these tropical coastal ecosystems has rarely been investigated, yet there are sufficient reasons to believe that this plays an important role. In the present study, we test the spatio-temporal variability in patterns of ontogenetic habitat use by some mangrove/seagrass-associated coral reef fishes (Lethrinus harak, Lethrinus lentjan, Lutjanus fulviflamma and Siganus sutor). Abundances of these four species were investigated during two years in Tanzanian coastal waters, using underwater visual census in mangrove, seagrass, shallow and deep mudflat, and shallow and deep coral reef habitats. The study covered four distinct seasons of the year and was done at two spatially separated (>40 km) locations. Averaged across locations, seasons and years, juveniles (≤10 cm length) of the four study species had significantly higher relative densities in shallow-water (mangroves and seagrass beds) than in deep-water habitats (deep mudflats or coral reefs), whereas the opposite pattern was found for the adults (>15 cm). These findings suggest a strong and general pattern of ontogenetic habitat shifts from shallow- to deep-water habitats. However, specific habitat-use patterns of juveniles as well as adults differed significantly in time and space. Various species showed subtle to considerable flexibility in juvenile as well as adult habitat use across seasons, years, or at different locations. Furthermore, for some species the data suggest presence of ontogenetic habitat shifts at one location but lack thereof at the other location. In summary, ontogenetic habitat use needs to be considered at various spatial and temporal scales for the interpretation of habitat utilization by fish during different life stages. This is important for conservation and management of these habitats, as essential habitats or seasons may be ignored or over-emphasized with respect to their importance for fish during different parts of their life cycle. 相似文献
14.
Sawayama Shuhei Nurdin Nurjannah Akbar AS Muhammad Sakamoto Shingo X. Komatsu Teruhisa 《Ocean Science Journal》2015,50(2):343-352
Coral reef ecosystems worldwide are now being harmed by various stresses accompanying the degradation of fish habitats and thus knowledge of fish-habitat relationships is urgently required. Because conventional research methods were not practical for this purpose due to the lack of a geospatial perspective, we attempted to develop a research method integrating visual fish observation with a seabed habitat map and to expand knowledge to a two-dimensional scale. WorldView-2 satellite imagery of Spermonde Archipelago, Indonesia obtained in September 2012 was analyzed and classified into four typical substrates: live coral, dead coral, seagrass and sand. Overall classification accuracy of this map was 81.3% and considered precise enough for subsequent analyses. Three sub-areas (CC: continuous coral reef, BC: boundary of coral reef and FC: few live coral zone) around reef slopes were extracted from the map. Visual transect surveys for several fish species were conducted within each sub-area in June 2013. As a result, Mean density (Ind. / 300 m2) of Chaetodon octofasciatus, known as an obligate feeder of corals, was significantly higher at BC than at the others (p < 0.05), implying that this species’ density is strongly influenced by spatial configuration of its habitat, like the “edge effect.” This indicates that future conservation procedures for coral reef fishes should consider not only coral cover but also its spatial configuration. The present study also indicates that the introduction of a geospatial perspective derived from remote sensing has great potential to progress conventional ecological studies on coral reef fishes.
相似文献15.
Corals in Malakal Bay reefs were devastated in the 1979 Crown of Thorns Starfish (COTS) outbreak. It has been almost 30 years since the outbreak and coral cover at the study sites have not come close to the cover before the outbreak. A question is asked: what factors may contribute to the slow recovery of these reefs: recruitment or post-settlement mortality? Two habitat types within the reef systems were monitored using coral transplants to determine if corals can survive in these environments and recruitment tiles to see if there are larvae coming into the system. The study revealed that coral survivorship is high in the fore reef areas compared to the reef channel slopes and that larvae is not a limiting factor to natural recovery. Stability of the reef framework, i.e. unstable rubble substrate, and possibly high post settlement mortality, are the structuring factors that determine the recovery process in these reef systems and possibly so for similar habitats in other reef systems throughout Palau. 相似文献
16.
By the consumption of algae, parrotfishes open space for young coral settlement and growth, thus playing a central role on the maintenance of coral reefs. However, juvenile parrotfish ecology is often overlooked due to the difficulty discerning species during this phase. Herein, we present the first attempt to investigate changes in habitat use and diet that happen to juveniles of the Redeye parrotfish Sparisoma axillare, focusing on four zones within an algal‐dominated reef: the macroalgal beds, back reef, reef flat, and fore reef. Smaller S. axillare juveniles (<5 cm) preferred to inhabit the macroalgal beds and the reef flat, whereas juveniles larger than 5 cm were more abundant in the back and fore reefs due to distinct post‐settlement habitat conditions. Aggressive interactions with the territorial damselfish Stegastes fuscus were the primary driving factor of juvenile distribution and feeding rates. Attack rates increased with juvenile size and the lowest bite rates were observed in zones with higher densities of territorial damselfish. In previous studies, the persistence of parrotfish recruits in habitats dominated by damselfish was reduced, but newly settled parrotfish occurred more densely within the damselfish domain by behaving as a cryptic reef fish. As these juveniles grew, their bite rates increased, a change associated with a shift from cryptic to roving behavior. Feeding preferences were determined by substrate cover, where juveniles fed on available food sources in each habitat. Juveniles relied on jointed calcareous algae in habitats dominated by these algae, a pattern not observed for thick leathery algae. Filamentous algae were the preferred food for smaller fish; for individuals greater than 10 cm, a higher ingestion of sand was observed. Most studies evaluating the functional role of parrotfish do not consider species feeding preferences. However, the potential for a species to turn an impacted reef back to a coral‐dominated phase is influenced by their food selection, which is dependent on the algal species composition. 相似文献
17.
Hurghada is located along the western margin of the northern Red Sea. The fringing coral reef and the pleasant dry weather make Hurghada an attractive tourist site. Over 40 recreational projects have been constructed, and there is a need for more such projects in spite of the fact that they threaten the coastal zone of Hurghada. Subsequent environmental hazards have been created that impacted the coastline and the marine ecosystem. The living corals and the marine ecology in the reef system have suffered dramatic degradation. The depositional—hydrodynamic pattern has been affected as a result of blocking littoral currents by protruded constructions. Subsequently, some coastal segments have been subjected to local downdrift erosion. 相似文献
18.
Sponges are important components of coral reef fauna, although little is known of their temporal dynamics. Sponges dominate the lagoon system at Palmyra Atoll in the Central Pacific, which may not be its natural state. Here we examined the temporal variability and recruitment rates of these sponge assemblages to determine if they are stable and examined the evidence that a recent transition has occurred from a coral‐ to sponge‐dominated system. We found 24 sponge species in permanent quadrats in the lagoon between 2009 and 2011, and 11 species on our recruitment panels. The sponge assemblage composition and abundance did not vary significantly between years and appear stable. Many sponge recruits were found in both years that the panels were examined although higher rates were recorded in the second year of the study. While it seems very possible that a change to a sponge‐dominated lagoon is associated with declining environmental quality at Palmyra as a result of modifications over 70 years ago, without pre‐modification data on reef assemblage composition this remains speculative. Our observations of short‐term temporal stability in the sponge assemblages at Palmyra highlight the potential for sponge‐dominated reef states to be maintained in degraded reef environments that are seemingly unsuitable for coral survival. 相似文献
19.
《Marine Policy》2017
Global coral reef related tourism is one of the most significant examples of nature-based tourism from a single ecosystem. Coral reefs attract foreign and domestic visitors and generate revenues, including foreign exchange earnings, in over 100 countries and territories. Understanding the full value of coral reefs to tourism, and the spatial distribution of these values, provides an important incentive for sustainable reef management. In the current work, global data from multiple sources, including social media and crowd-sourced datasets, were used to estimate and map two distinct components of reef value. The first component is local “reef-adjacent” value, an overarching term used to capture a range of indirect benefits from coral reefs, including provision of sandy beaches, sheltered water, food, and attractive views. The second component is “on-reef” value, directly associated with in-water activities such diving and snorkelling. Tourism values were estimated as a proportion of the total visits and spending by coastal tourists within 30 km of reefs (excluding urban areas). Reef-adjacent values were set as a fixed proportion of 10% of this expenditure. On-reef values were based on the relative abundance of dive-shops and underwater photos in different countries and territories. Maps of value assigned to specific coral reef locations show considerable spatial variability across distances of just a few kilometres. Some 30% of the world's reefs are of value in the tourism sector, with a total value estimated at nearly US$36 billion, or over 9% of all coastal tourism value in the world's coral reef countries. 相似文献
20.
Estrella Villamizar María C. Díaz Klaus Rützler Renato De Nóbrega 《Marine Ecology》2014,35(4):425-435
Changes in the relative abundance of benthic groups on the barrier fore reef at Carrie Bow Cay, Belize, point to a significant reduction of corals and an expansion of the sponge community in 1995–2009. Fifty‐one species are now present in the four geomorphological zones of this reef: the low‐relief spur‐and‐groove zone, the inner reef slope, the outer ridge, and the fore‐reef slope (to a depth of 30 m). Five species are new additions to the sponge fauna reported for Belize, and six species account for 42.6% of the total assemblage: Niphates erecta (9.60%), Aiolochroia crassa (8.8%), Niphates digitalis (6.9%), Callyspongia plicifera (6.63%), Aplysina archeri (5.37%) and Xestospongia muta (5.37%). Species richness, average density, diversity and evenness indexes are statistically similar in these four zones but some species appear to be more dominant in certain areas. In the same 30 years, coral cover has decreased by more than 90%, while the octocoral cover has greatly increased (by as much as 10‐fold in the low‐relief spur‐and‐groove zone). Thus the Carrie Bow fore reef appears to be undergoing a transition from coral dominance in the late 1970s to algae dominance today, with other benthic groups such as sponges and octocorals showing signs of gradual recovery. 相似文献