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1.
A computer simulation of the sputtering of lunar soil by solar wind protons was performed with the TRIM program. The rate of the sputtering-induced erosion of regolith particles was shown to be less than 0.2 Å per year. A preferential sputtering of Ca, Mg, and O was found along with a less intense sputtering of Fe, Si, and Ti. However, with no other selection mechanisms, surface concentrations of the atoms would differ from the volume ones by no more than 6 %. The enrichment of rims of regolith particles with iron occurs as a result of selective removal of lighter atoms from the lunar surface because of different energies of escape from the Moon's gravity. The energy distributions proved to be the same for all sorts of the sputtered atoms, except for implanted hydrogen; thus, a greater fraction of the atoms left on the lunar surface corresponds to heavier elements. According to simulation results, the concentration of reduced iron observed in the mature regolith could be attained during the time of regolith particle exposure to the present flux of solar wind (105 years). Thus, sputtering can provide the concentration of Fe0 observed in regolith. On periphery of a cloud of impact vapor the temperature is too low for an irreversible selective removal of evaporation products; thus, a meteoritic bombardment contributes to the formation of composition of the rims of regolith particles mainly through enrichment of the rims with elements from the bulk of the particles. The estimates of fluxes of backscattered solar wind protons and of sputtered protons, earlier implanted to the regolith, demonstrated that their contribution to the proton flux near the poles is only 104 cm–2 s–1. This is by two orders of magnitude smaller than the proton flux from the Earth's magnetosphere which is, therefore, the main source of protons for permanently shaded polar craters of the Moon.  相似文献   

2.
D.J. Burke 《Icarus》2011,211(2):1082-1088
Remote infrared spectroscopic measurements have recently re-opened the possibility that water is present on the surface of the Moon. Analyses of infrared absorption spectra obtained by three independent space instruments have identified water and hydroxyl (-OH) absorption bands at ∼3 μm within the lunar surface. These reports are surprising since there are many mechanisms that can remove water but no clear mechanism for replenishment. One hypothesis, based on the spatial distribution of the -OH signal, is that water is formed by the interaction of the solar wind with silicates and other oxides in the lunar basalt. To test this hypothesis, we have performed a series of laboratory simulations that examine the effect of proton irradiation on two minerals: anorthite and ilmenite. Bi-directional infrared reflection absorption spectra do not show any discernable enhancement of infrared absorption in the 3 μm spectral region following 1 or 100 keV proton irradiation at fluences between 1016 and 1018 ions cm−2. In fact, the post-irradiation spectra are characterized by a decrease in the residual O-H band within both minerals. Similarly, secondary ion mass spectrometry shows a decrease rather than an increase of the water group ions following proton bombardment of ilmenite. The absence of significant formation of either -OH or H2O is ascribed to the preferential depletion of oxygen by sputtering during proton irradiation, which is confirmed by post-irradiation surface analysis using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy measurements. Our results provide no evidence to support the formation of H2O in the lunar regolith via implantation of solar wind protons as a mechanism responsible for the significant O-H absorption in recent spacecraft data. We determine an upper limit for the production of surficial -OH on the lunar surface by solar wind irradiation to be 0.5% (absorption depth).  相似文献   

3.
We have obtained spectra of Pluto on six nights during February 1979 using the Cassegrain Digicon spectrograph on the 2.1-m Struve reflector and the IDS spectrograph on the 2.7-m reflector of McDonald Observatory. These spectra, with nominal resolution of 6–7 Å, have been reduced to relative fluxes. Relative albedos were then calculated using the solar irradiances of Arvesen et al. (1969). The spectra taken in the blue show no indication of the upturn in albedo at λ < 3800 A? previously reported by Fix et al. (1970). The lack of a uv upturn cannot be interpreted in terms of a Rayleigh scattering atmosphere unless the albedo of the underlying surface is known. From the lack of methane absorption at the wavelength of the 6190- or 7270-Å methane bands we derive an upper limit of 1–3 m-am of gaseous CH4. The albedo curve has a constant slope between 3500 and 7300 Å. The only other solar system body which has this feature is an S-type asteroid.  相似文献   

4.
The neutral particle detector (NPD) on board Mars Express has observed energetic neutral atoms (ENAs) from a broad region on the dayside of the martian upper atmosphere. We show one such example for which the observation was conducted at an altitude of 570 km, just above the induced magnetosphere boundary (IMB). The time of flight spectra of these ENAs show that they had energies of 0.2-2 keV/amu, with an average energy of ∼1.1 keV/amu. Both the spatial distribution and the energy of these ENAs are consistent with the backscattered ENAs, produced by an ENA albedo process. This is the first observation of backscattered ENAs from the martian upper atmosphere. The origin of these ENAs is considered to be the solar wind ENAs that are scattered back by collision processes in the martian upper atmosphere. The particle flux and energy flux of the backscattered ENAs are and , respectively.  相似文献   

5.
The 3D structure of the solar wind and its evolution in time are needed for heliospheric modeling and interpretation of energetic neutral atoms observations. We present a model to retrieve the solar wind structure in heliolatitude and time using all available and complementary data sources. We determine the heliolatitude structure of solar wind speed on a yearly time grid over the past 1.5 solar cycles based on remote-sensing observations of interplanetary scintillations, in situ out-of-ecliptic measurements from Ulysses, and in situ in-ecliptic measurements from the OMNI 2 database. Since in situ out-of-ecliptic information on the solar wind density structure is not available apart from the Ulysses data, we derive correlation formulae between the solar wind speed and density and use the information on the solar wind speed from interplanetary scintillation observations to retrieve the 3D structure of the solar wind density. With the variations of solar wind density and speed in time and heliolatitude available, we calculate variations in solar wind flux, dynamic pressure, and charge-exchange rate in the approximation of stationary H atoms.  相似文献   

6.
The lunar photometric function, which describes the dependency of the observed radiance on the observation geometry, is used for photometric correction of lunar visible/near-infrared data. A precise photometric correction parameter set is crucial for many applications including mineral identification and reflectance map mosaics. We present, for the first time, spectrally continuous photometric correction parameters for both sides of the Moon for wavelengths in the range 0.5-1.6 μm and solar phase angles between 5° and 85°, derived from Kaguya (SELENE) Spectral Profiler (SP) data. Since the measured radiance also depends on the surface albedo, we developed a statistical method for selecting areas with relatively uniform albedos from a nearly 7000-orbit SP data set. Using the selected data set, we obtained empirical photometric correction parameter sets for three albedo groups (high, medium, and low). We did this because the photometric function depends on the albedo, especially at phase angles below about 20° for which the shadow hiding opposition effect is appreciable. We determined the parameters in 160 bands and discovered a small variation in the opposition effect due to the albedo variation of mafic mineral absorption. The consistency of the photometric correction was checked by comparing observations made at different times of the same area on the lunar surface. Variations in the spectra obtained were lower than 2%, except for the large phase angle data in mare. Lastly, we developed a correction method for low solar elevation data, which is required for high latitude regions. By investigating low solar elevation data, we introduced an additional correction method. We used the new photometric correction to generate a 1° mesh global lunar reflectance map cube in a wavelength range of 0.5-1.6 μm. Surprisingly, these maps reveal that high latitude (?75°) regions in both the north and south have much lower spectral continuum slopes (color ratio r1547.7nm/r752.8nm ? 1.8) than the low and medium latitude regions, which implies lower degrees of space weathering.  相似文献   

7.
A procedure of an a posteriori correction of the available data on the integral photometry of the Moon is described. This procedure reduces the regular errors of the integral phase curves caused by variations of the libration parameters; the effect due to libration can reach 4%. A method allowing the integral measurements of the Moon to be compared correctly with the photometric measurements of the lunar areas or laboratory samples imitating the lunar soil has been developed. To approximate the phase curves of integral albedo in the phase-angle range from 6° to 120°, we proposed a simple empirical formula A eq(α) = m l e ?ρα + m 2 e ?0.7α, where α is the phase angle, ρ is the factor of effective roughness, and m 1 + m 2 is the surface albedo at a zero phase angle. An empirical phase dependence of the slope of the lunar spectrum in the 360–1060 nm range has been obtained. The results may be used to test various theoretical models of the light scattering by the lunar surface and to calibrate the data of ground-based and space-borne spectrophotometric observations.  相似文献   

8.
During the previous years spacecraft observations of so-called Energetic Neutral Atoms (ENAs) have become an important remote-sensing technique in planetary science for analyzing the solar wind plasma flow around the upper atmospheric environments of Solar System bodies. ENAs are produced whenever solar- or stellar wind protons interact via charge exchange with a neutral particle from a planetary atmosphere so that their signals constrain both, ion distributions and neutral gas densities. The observation of ENAs which have been generated due to charge exchange with stellar wind plasma have been used for the indirect mass loss and stellar wind property estimation of Sun-like stars by observing the interaction regions carved out by the collisions between stellar winds and the interstellar medium. In this work we review ENA-observations and data interpretations at Solar System planets and recent hydrogen-cloud observations in UV Lyman-α absorption around hydrogen-rich extra-solar gas giants. We discuss the production of stellar wind related hydrogen ENA-clouds around close-in exoplanets and show how a detailed analysis of attenuation spectra obtained for transiting hydrogen-rich close-in gas giants can be used for the study of the upper atmosphere structure, the planet’s magnetosphere and to obtain information on stellar wind properties. Finally, we discuss how future hydrogen cloud observations around exoplanets by space observatories like the Russia-led World Space Observatory-UV (WSO-UV) together with ESAs planned PLATO mission can be used for the reconstruction of the solar wind history or the test of magnetosphere evolution hypotheses.  相似文献   

9.
This survey is a general overview of modern optical studies of the Moon and their diagnostic meaning. It includes three united parts: phase photometry, spectrophotometry, and polarimetry. The first one is devoted to the progress in the photometry of the Moon, which includes absolute albedo determination to refine the albedo scale (e.g., to connect lunar observations and the data of lunar sample measurements) and mapping the parameters of a lunar photometric function (e.g., the phase-angle ratios method) with the aim of making qualitative estimates of regolith structure variations. This part also includes observations of the lunar opposition effect as well as photogrammetry and photoclinometry techniques. In particular, available data show that because of the low albedo of the lunar surface, the coherent backscattering enhancement hardly influences the lunar opposition spike, with the exception of the brightest lunar areas measured in the NIR. The second part is devoted to chemical/mineral mapping of the Moon's surface using spectrophotometric measurements. This section also includes analyses related to the detection of water ice or hydroxyl, prognoses of maturity, and helium-3 abundance mapping. In particular, we examine the relationship between superficial OH/H2O compounds spectrally detected recently and bulk “water ice” found earlier by the Lunar Prospector GRS and LRO LEND, assuming that the compounds are delivered to cold traps (permanently shadowed regions) with electrostatically levitated dust saturated by solar wind hydrogen. Significant problems arise with the determination of TiO2 content, as the correlation between this parameter and the color ratio C(750/415 nm) is very non-linear and not universal for different composition types of the lunar surface; a promising way to resolve this problem is to use color ratios in the UV spectral range. The third part is devoted to mapping of polarization parameters of the lunar surface, which enable estimates of the average size of regolith particles and their optical inhomogeneity. This includes considerations of the Umov effect and results of spectropolarimetry, negative polarization imagery, and measurements of other polarimetric parameters, including the third Stokes parameter. Although these three research divisions have not been developed equally and the numbers of proper references are very different, we try to keep a balance between them, depicting a uniform picture. It should be emphasized that many results presented in this review can be applied to other atmosphereless celestial bodies as well.  相似文献   

10.
Mount  George H.  Linsky  Jeffrey L. 《Solar physics》1974,35(2):259-276
We have obtained center-to-limb photoelectric spectra of the CN(1,1) B-X bandhead region λ3868–3872 Å at Kitt Peak National Observatory. From these spectra and a detailed analysis of the formation of the CN (1, 1) spectrum we derive a best-fit upper photospheric model differing from the HSRA which is consistent with our previous CN(0, 0) λ3883 spectra. We derive a solar carbon abundance of log A c = 8.30 ± 0.10 compared to the HSRA value of log A c = 8.55 ± 0.10. In addition we specify the regions of formation for the CN(0, 0) λ3883.35 and CN(1, 1) λ 3871.38 bandheads at disc center and limb.  相似文献   

11.
The solar and galactic cosmic rays interact directly with lunar surface materials, and the dominant nature of interactions is essentially the complete absorption of corpuscles. These corpuscles damage the lattice structure, and induce a complex set of reactions in the materials producing various species. The cosmic ray damage of the lattice would not produce an amorphous layer, similar to that produced by the solar wind, because the solar wind erosion rate is faster than the cosmic ray-induced amorphous layer formation rate. The species formation rate considered in this paper are those produced by protons, the dominant component of cosmic rays. Protons produce H, H2, OH, H2O, and hydrogenated species of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, etc. These species, while migrating in the material, encounter oncoming cosmic ray corpuscles, and undergo a complex set of reactions. Although a variety of species are produced by protons, the dominant contributor to the atmosphere is H2. The H2 flux (molecules cm–2 sec–1) is about 1.5 × 105 as compared to the H flux of 8.4 × 101 and the H2O flux of 4.6 × 10–2. These fluxes are about 10–3 smaller than the fluxes of the same species produced by the solar wind protons. Thus the contributions of the cosmic ray-induced species to the atmosphere is very small compared to the solar wind-induced species. Although simulated experiments showed high concentractions of OH and H2O in the terrestrial materials of lunar type, these species concentrations in the lunar materials under the lunar environment is much smaller than those observed in the simulated experiments.  相似文献   

12.
This paper presents a review of research findings on the various forms of water on the Moon. First, this is the water of the Moon’s interior, which has been detected by sensitive mass spectrometric analysis of basaltic glasses delivered by the Apollo 15 and Apollo 17 missions. The previous concepts that lunar magmas are completely dehydrated have been disproved. Second, this is H2O and/or OH in a thin layer (a few upper millimeters) of the lunar regolith, which is likely a result of bombardment of the oxygen contained in the lunar regolith with solar wind protons. This form of water is highly unstable and quite easily escapes from the surface, possibly being one of the sources of the water ice reservoirs at the Moon’s poles. Third, this is water ice associated with other frozen gases in cold traps at the lunar poles. Its possible sources are impacts of comets and meteorites, the release of gas from the Moon’s interior, and solar wind protons. The ice trapped at the lunar polars could be of practical interest for further exploration of the Moon.  相似文献   

13.
Wenzhe Fa 《Icarus》2007,190(1):15-23
3He (helium-3) in the lunar regolith implanted by the solar wind is one of the most valuable resources because of its potential as a fusion fuel. The abundance of 3He in the lunar regolith is related to solar wind flux, lunar surface maturity and TiO2 content, etc. A model of solar wind flux, which takes account of variations due to shielding of the nearside when the Moon is in the Earth's magnetotail, is used to present a global distribution of relative solar wind flux over the lunar surface. Using Clementine UV/VIS multispectral data, the global distribution of lunar surface optical maturity (OMAT) and the TiO2 content in the lunar regolith are calculated. Based on Apollo regolith samples, a linear relation between 3He abundance and normalized solar wind flux, optical maturity, and TiO2 content is presented. To simulate the brightness temperature of the lunar surface, which is the mission of the Chinese Chang-E project's multichannel radiometers, a global distribution of regolith layer thickness is first empirically constructed from lunar digital elevation mapping (DEM). Then an inversion approach is presented to retrieve the global regolith layer thickness. It finally yields the total amount of 3He per unit area in the lunar regolith layer, which is related to the regolith layer thickness, solar wind flux, optical maturity and TiO2 content, etc. The global inventory of 3He is estimated as 6.50×108 kg, where 3.72×108 kg is for the lunar nearside and 2.78×108 kg is for the lunar farside.  相似文献   

14.
Imaging of low-energy neutral atoms (LENAs) in the vicinity of the Moon can provide wide knowledge of the Moon from the viewpoint of plasma physics and planetary physics. At the surface of the Moon, neutral atoms are mainly generated by photon-stimulated desorption, micrometeorite vaporization and sputtering by solar wind protons. LENAs, the energetic neutral atoms with energy range of 10-500 eV, are mainly created by sputtering of solar wind particles. We have made quantitative estimates of sputtered LENAs from the Moon surface. The results indicate that LENAs can be detected by a realistic instrument and that the measurement will provide the global element maps of sputtered particles, which substantially reflect the surface composition, and the magnetic anomalies. We have also found that LENAs around dark regions, such as the permanent shadow inside craters in the pole region, can be imaged. This is because the solar wind ions can penetrate shaded regions due to their finite gyro-radius and the pressure gradient between the solar wind and the wake region. LENAs also extend our knowledge about the magnetic anomalies and associated mini-magnetosphere systems, which are the smallest magnetospheres as far as one knows. It is thought that no LENAs are generated from mini-magnetosphere regions because no solar wind may penetrate inside them. Imaging such void areas of LENAs will provide another map of lunar magnetic anomalies.  相似文献   

15.
Charge exchange collisions between interplanetary neutral H atoms and solar wind protons may lead to fluxes of neutral H atoms and He+ ions in the solar wind. Photoionization of interplanetary helium atoms may also contribute to the He+ flux. The expected fluxes of He+ ions and neutral H atoms in the solar wind are computed. A simple model is used to compute the intensity of resonantly backscattered solar Hell (λ304 Å) and Lyman α radiation.  相似文献   

16.
The development, with time, of microcrater and accretionary particle distributions is investigated for lunar rocks subjected to meteoroid and solar wind bombardment. Experimental observations of the impact crater size distributions and accretionary particle populations on specially selected areas of Apollo Lunar Samples are used to derive incident fluxes for the theory of topological development described in Paper I. (ibid.). Observations show that a delineation and quantitative characterisation of erosion by impact, solar wind sputter and accretionary build-up leads to features typical of lunar surface rocks. The dominance of specific erosion mechanisms is shown to be size dependent. Monte Carlo simulations of these processes are developed to mimic the surface development of populations under arbitrary exposure conditions. Surface dust and splash (accreta) build-up significantly affects observed parameters; it may be used also as a sample surface exposure age indicator. Sputter by the solar wind is shown to modify both accreta and microcrater populations up to dimensions of one micron.  相似文献   

17.
Observations of the equatorial lunar sodium emission are examined to quantify the effect of precipitating ions on source rates for the Moon’s exospheric volatile species. Using a model of exospheric sodium transport under lunar gravity forces, the measured emission intensity is normalized to a constant lunar phase angle to minimize the effect of different viewing geometries. Daily averages of the solar Lyman α flux and ion flux are used as the input variables for photon-stimulated desorption (PSD) and ion sputtering, respectively, while impact vaporization due to the micrometeoritic influx is assumed constant. Additionally, a proxy term proportional to both the Lyman α and to the ion flux is introduced to assess the importance of ion-enhanced diffusion and/or chemical sputtering. The combination of particle transport and constrained regression models demonstrates that, assuming sputtering yields that are typical of protons incident on lunar soils, the primary effect of ion impact on the surface of the Moon is not direct sputtering but rather an enhancement of the PSD efficiency. It is inferred that the ion-induced effects must double the PSD efficiency for flux typical of the solar wind at 1 AU. The enhancement in relative efficiency of PSD due to the bombardment of the lunar surface by the plasma sheet ions during passages through the Earth’s magnetotail is shown to be approximately two times higher than when it is due to solar wind ions. This leads to the conclusion that the priming of the surface is more efficiently carried out by the energetic plasma sheet ions.  相似文献   

18.
The solar wind interacts directly with the lunar surface material resulting in an essentially complete absorption of the corpuscles producing no upstream bowshock but a cavity downstream from the Moon. The main source of most neutral species of the atmosphere, except probably40Ar, is the solar-wind interaction products. The other sources which appear to be minor contributors to the atmosphere are the interaction products of cosmic rays, planetary degassing, effects of meteorite impacts and radioactive decays. Most of the hydrogen atoms derived from the solar-wind protons contribute to the atmosphere as hydrogen molecules rather than atoms. Only on the basis of the solar-wind protons, alpha particles and ions of oxygen and carbon, the atmospheric species concentration (cm–3) near the lunar surface at 300K are as follows: H2 3.3 to 9.9 × 103; He 2.4 to 4.7 × 103; H 3.7; OH 0.25; H2O 0.24; and O2, O, CO, CO2 and CH4 in concentrations smaller than H2. Whatever the source, the OH and H2O concentrations in the atmosphere are about the same. The calculated concentrations are in good agreement with the observations by the Apollo 17 lunar surface mass spectrometer and the Apollo 17 orbital UV spectrometer. At the time of sample collection from the Moon, the hydrogen content in the trapped gas layer of the lunar surface material was partly as hydrogen atoms and partly as hydrogen molecules, but at the time of sample analysis hydrogen was mostly in molecular form. The H2O content at the time of sample analysis was only a few parts per million by weight.Paper presented at the Conference on Interactions of the Interplanetary Plasma with the Modern and Ancient Moon, sponsored by the Lunar Science Institute, Houston, Texas and held at the Lake Geneva Campus of George Williams College, Wisconsin, between September 30 and October 4, 1974.  相似文献   

19.
Observations at Godhavn, Greenland show that the intersection of the polar cleft with the ionosphere can be recognized by simultaneous occurrence of hydrogen emissions (Hα, Hβ>) and enhanced OI 6300 Å emission. The Hα-line reveals a characteristic narrow and symmetric Doppler profile which is interpreted as indicating that the solar wind protons retain their typical flux and energy spectrum all the way down to the ionosphere. The cleft intersection seems to cover the sector 04:00–22:00 geomagnetic time.  相似文献   

20.
An astrophotometer was used for measurements of lunar sky brightness in visible and ultraviolet range during day and night. The data obtained showed unexpectedly high values of brightness during the lunar day in the visible region. From measurements during lunar ‘twilight’ conditions and from the dependence of excessive flux on cosZ⊙ we have concluded that the effect is due to scattering of solar radiation by dust particles above the surface of the Moon. Some evidence in favour of dust clouds around the Moon is presented.  相似文献   

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