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1.
Previous research has demonstrated that soil carbon sequestration through adoption of conservation tillage can be economically profitable depending on the value of a carbon offset in a greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions market. However adoption of conservation tillage also influences two other potentially important factors, changes in soil N2O emissions and CO2 emissions attributed to changes in fuel use. In this article we evaluate the supply of GHG offsets associated with conservation tillage adoption for corn-soy-hay and wheat-pasture systems of the central United States, taking into account not only the amount of carbon sequestration but also the changes in soil N2O emission and CO2 emissions from fuel use in tillage operations. The changes in N2O emissions are derived from a meta-analysis of published studies, and changes in fuel use are based on USDA data. These are used to estimate changes in global warming potential (GWP) associated with adoption of no-till practices, and the changes in GWP are then used in an economic analysis of the potential supply of GHG offsets from the region. Simulation results demonstrate that taking N2O emissions into account could result in substantial underestimation of the potential for GHG mitigation in the central U.S. wheat pasture systems, and large over-estimation in the corn-soy-hay systems. Fuel use also has quantitatively important effects, although generally smaller than N2O. These findings suggest that it is important to incorporate these two effects in estimates of GHG offset potential from agricultural lands, as well as in the design of GHG offset contracts for more complete accounting of the effect that no-till adoption will have on greenhouse gas emissions.  相似文献   

2.
An improvement of methods for the inventory of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is necessary to ensure effective control of commitments to emission reduction. The national inventory reports play an important role, but do not reflect specifics of regional processes of GHG emission and absorption for large-area countries. In this article, a GIS approach for the spatial inventory of GHG emissions in the energy sector, based on IPCC guidelines, official statistics on fuel consumption, and digital maps of the region under investigation, is presented. We include mathematical background for the spatial emission inventory of point, line and area sources, caused by fossil-fuel use for power and heat production, the residential sector, industrial and agricultural sectors, and transport. Methods for the spatial estimation of emissions from stationary and mobile sources, taking into account the specifics of fuel used and technological processes, are described. Using the developed GIS technology, the territorial distribution of GHG emissions, at the level of elementary grid cells 2 km?×?2 km for the territory of Western Ukraine, is obtained. Results of the spatial analysis are presented in the form of a geo-referenced database of emissions, and visualized as layers of digital maps. Uncertainty of inventory results is calculated using the Monte Carlo approach, and the sensitivity analysis results are described. The results achieved demonstrated that the relative uncertainties of emission estimates, for CO2 and for total emissions (in CO2 equivalent), depend largely on uncertainty in the statistical data and on uncertainty in fuels’ calorific values. The uncertainty of total emissions stays almost constant with the change of uncertainty of N2O emission coefficients, and correlates strongly with an improvement in knowledge about CH4 emission processes. The presented approach provides an opportunity to create a spatial cadastre of emissions, and to use this additional knowledge for the analysis and reduction of uncertainty. It enables us to identify territories with the highest emissions, and estimate an influence of uncertainty of the large emission sources on the uncertainty of total emissions. Ascribing emissions to the places where they actually occur helps to improve the inventory process and to reduce the overall uncertainty.  相似文献   

3.
This study provides estimates of greenhouse gas emissions from the major anthropogenic sources for 142 countries. The data compilation is comprehensive in approach, including emissions from CO, CH4, and N2O, and ten halocarbons, in addition to CO2. The sources include emissions from fossil fuel production and use, cement production, halocarbons, landfills, land use changes, biomass burning, rice and livestock production and fertilizer consumption. The approach used to derive these estimates corresponds closely with the simple methodologies proposed by the Greenhouse Gas Emissions Task Force of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. The inventory includes a new estimate of greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion based principally on data from the International Energy Agency. The research methodologies for estimating emissions from all sources is briefly described and compared with other recent studies in the literature.  相似文献   

4.
The MAGICC (Model for the Assessment of Greenhouse gas Induced Climate Change) model simulation has been carried out for the 2000–2100 period to investigate the impacts of future Indian greenhouse gas emission scenarios on the atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide besides other parameters like radiative forcing and temperature. For this purpose, the default global GHG (Greenhouse Gases) inventory was modified by incorporation of Indian GHG emission inventories which have been developed using three different approaches namely (a) Business-As-Usual (BAU) approach, (b) Best Case Scenario (BCS) approach and (c) Economy approach (involving the country’s GDP). The model outputs obtained using these modified GHG inventories are compared with various default model scenarios such as A1B, A2, B1, B2 scenarios of AIM (Asia-Pacific Integrated Model) and P50 scenario (median of 35 scenarios given in MAGICC). The differences in the range of output values for the default case scenarios (i.e., using the GHG inventories built into the model) vis-à-vis modified approach which incorporated India-specific emission inventories for AIM and P50 are quite appreciable for most of the modeled parameters. A reduction of 7% and 9% in global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions has been observed respectively for the years 2050 and 2100. Global methane (CH4) and global nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions indicate a reduction of 13% and 15% respectively for 2100. Correspondingly, global concentrations of CO2, CH4 and N2O are estimated to reduce by about 4%, 4% and 1% respectively. Radiative forcing of CO2, CH4 and N2O indicate reductions of 6%, 14% and 4% respectively for the year 2100. Global annual mean temperature change (incorporating aerosol effects) gets reduced by 4% in 2100. Global annual mean temperature change reduces by 5% in 2100 when aerosol effects have been excluded. In addition to the above, the Indian contributions in global CO2, CH4 and N2O emissions have also been assessed by India Excluded (IE) scenario. Indian contribution in global CO2 emissions was observed in the range of 10%–26%, 6%–36% and 10%–38% respectively for BCS, Economy and BAU approaches, for the years 2020, 2050 and 2100 for P50, A1B-AIM, A2-AIM, B1-AIM & B2-AIM scenarios. CH4 and N2O emissions indicate about 4%–10% and 2%–3% contributions respectively in the global CH4 and N2O emissions for the years 2020, 2050 and 2100. These Indian GHG emissions have significant influence on global GHG concentrations and consequently on climate parameters like RF and ∆T. The study reflects not only the importance of Indian emissions in the global context but also underlines the need of incorporation of country specific GHG emissions in modeling to reduce uncertainties in simulation of climate change parameters.  相似文献   

5.
Transportation contributes to a significant and rising share of global energy use and GHG emissions. Therefore modeling future travel demand, its fuel use, and resulting CO2 emission is highly relevant for climate change mitigation. In this study we compare the baseline projections for global service demand (passenger-kilometers, ton-kilometers), fuel use, and CO2 emissions of five different global transport models using harmonized input assumptions on income and population. For four models we also evaluate the impact of a carbon tax. All models project a steep increase in service demand over the century. Technology change is important for limiting energy consumption and CO2 emissions, the study also shows that in order to stabilise or even decrease emissions radical changes would be required. While all models project liquid fossil fuels dominating up to 2050, they differ regarding the use of alternative fuels (natural gas, hydrogen, biofuels, and electricity), because of different fuel price projections. The carbon tax of 200 USD/tCO2 in 2050 stabilizes or reverses global emission growth in all models. Besides common findings many differences in the model assumptions and projections indicate room for further understanding long-term trends and uncertainty in future transport systems.  相似文献   

6.
The greenhouse gases emission (CO2, CH4, and N2O) from domestic and international aviation in the Russian Federation is assessed. In 2007, the total emission of CO2, CH4, and N2O amounted to 18.4 million tons of CO2-equivalent, which is 21% below the 1990 level. Carbon dioxide dominates in the component composition of the emissions, its part in 2007 accounted for 99.1% of the emission. Taking into account the tendency towards increasing fuel consumption due to intense aircraft traffic it can be expected that compared to the present level the greenhouse gases emissions in 2012 and 2020 will increase by 15 and 45%, respectively. Accounting for the increased aircraft emissions as well as plans of foreign countries to include the international aviation into the scheme of greenhouse gases emission allowance (trade credits) it is expedient to make more precise the greenhouse gases emissions from the Russian aviation based on the detailed flight data for all types of the aircraft.  相似文献   

7.
The Denitrification-Decompostion (DNDC) model was used to estimate the impact of change in management practices on N2O emissions in seven major soil regions in Canada, for the period 1970 to 2029. Conversion of cultivated land to permanent grassland would result in the greatest reduction in N2O emissions, particularly in eastern Canada wherethe model estimated about 60% less N2O emissions for thisconversion. About 33% less N2O emissions were predicted for a changefrom conventional tillage to no-tillage in western Canada, however, a slight increase in N2O emissions was predicted for eastern Canada. GreaterN2O emissions in eastern Canada associated with the adoption of no-tillage were attributed to higher soil moisture causing denitrification, whereas the lower emissions in western Canada were attributed to less decomposition of soil organic matter in no-till versus conventional tilled soil. Elimination of summer fallow in a crop rotation resulted in a 9% decrease in N2O emissions, with substantial emissions occurringduring the wetter fallow years when N had accumulated. Increasing N-fertilizer application rates by 50% increased average emissions by 32%,while a 50% decrease of N-fertilizer application decreased emissions by16%. In general, a small increase in N2O emissions was predicted when N-fertilizer was applied in the fall rather than in the spring. Previous research on CO2 emissions with the CENTURY model (Smith et al.,2001) allowed the quantification of the combined change in N2O andCO2 emissions in CO2 equivalents for a wide range of managementpractices in the seven major soil regions in Canada. The management practices that have the greatest potential to reduce the combined N2O andCO2 emissions are conversion from conventional tillage to permanent grassland, reduced tillage, and reduction of summer fallow. The estimated net greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction when changing from cultivated land to permanent grassland ranged from 0.97 (Brown Chernozem) to 4.24 MgCO2 equiv. ha–1 y–1 (BlackChernozem) for the seven soil regions examined. When changing from conventional tillage to no-tillage the net GHG emission reduction ranged from 0.33 (Brown Chernozem) to 0.80 Mg CO2 equiv. ha–1 y–1 (Dark GrayLuvisol). Elimination of fallow in the crop rotation lead to an estimated net GHG emission reduction of 0.43 (Brown Chernozem) to 0.80 Mg CO2 equiv.ha–1 y–1 (Dark Brown Chernozem). The addition of 50% more or 50% less N-fertilizer both resulted in slight increases in combined CO2 and N2O emissions. There was a tradeoff in GHG flux with greaterN2O emissions and a comparable increase in carbon storage when 50% more N-fertilizer was added. The results from this work indicate that conversion of cultivated land to grassland, the conversion from conventional tillage to no-tillage, and the reduction of summerallow in crop rotations could substantially increase C sequestration and decrease net GHG emissions. Based on these results a simple scaling-up scenario to derive the possible impacts on Canada's Kyoto commitment has been calculated.  相似文献   

8.
Uncertainty analysis facilitates identification of the most important categories affecting greenhouse gas (GHG) inventory uncertainty and helps in prioritisation of the efforts needed for development of the inventory. This paper presents an uncertainty analysis of GHG emissions of all Kyoto sectors and gases for Finland consolidated with estimates of emissions/removals from LULUCF categories. In Finland, net GHG emissions in 2003 were around 69 Tg (±15 Tg) CO2 equivalents. The uncertainties in forest carbon sink estimates in 2003 were larger than in most other emission categories, but of the same order of magnitude as in carbon stock change estimates in other land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) categories, and in N2O emissions from agricultural soils. Uncertainties in sink estimates of 1990 were lower, due to better availability of data. Results of this study indicate that inclusion of the forest carbon sink to GHG inventories reported to the UNFCCC increases uncertainties in net emissions notably. However, the decrease in precision is accompanied by an increase in the accuracy of the overall net GHG emissions due to improved completeness of the inventory. The results of this study can be utilised when planning future GHG mitigation protocols and emission trading schemes and when analysing environmental benefits of climate conventions.  相似文献   

9.
Abstract

Fossil fuel combustion is the largest source of anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. As a result of combustion, essentially all of the fuel carbon is emitted to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide (CO2), along with small amounts of methane and, in some cases, nitrous oxide. It has been axiomatic that reducing anthropogenic GHG emissions requires reducing fossil-fuel use. However, that relationship may no longer be as highly coupled in the future. There is an emerging understanding that CO2 capture and storage (CCS) technology offers a way of using fossil fuels while reducing CO2 emissions by 85% or more. While CCS is not the ‘silver bullet’ that in and of itself will solve the climate change problem, it is a powerful addition to the portfolio of technologies that will be needed to address climate change. The goal of this Commentary is to describe CCS technology in simple terms: how it might be used, how it might fit into longer term mitigation strategies, and finally, the policy issues that its emergence creates. All of these topics are discussed in much greater detail in the recently published Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage (SRCCS) (IPCC, 2005).  相似文献   

10.
Anthropogenic emissions of methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) from livestock agriculture (enteric fermentation, animal waste management systems, and pasture manure) and plant growing of the Russia (CH4 emissions from rice fields, direct and indirect N2O emissions from agricultural lands) are considered. In 2004, the total emissions of these greenhouse gases in the agricultural sector amounted to 1.4 × 105 thousand t CO2-equivalent, which corresponds to 45% of the 1990 level (3.1 × 105 thousand t CO2-equivalent). In 2004, the contribution of N2O to the total agricultural emissions was approximately twice (67.0%) that of CH4 (33.0%). Direct N2O emissions from agricultural soils (0.5 × 105 thousand t CO2-equivalent) and CH4 emissions from the internal fermentation of domestic animals (0.4 × 105 thousand t CO2-equivalent) are the most significant sources in the agricultural sector of the Russian Federation. In 2004, all these agricultural sources emitting methane and nitrous oxide contributed about 7% CO2-equivalent to the total emission of the anthropogenic greenhouse gases in Russia.  相似文献   

11.
Net greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from Canadian crop and livestock production were estimated for 1990, 1996 and 2001 and projected to 2008. Net emissions were also estimated for three scenarios (low (L), medium (M) and high (H)) of adoption of sink enhancing practices above the projected 2008 level. Carbon sequestration estimates were based on four sink-enhancing activities: conversion from conventional to zero tillage (ZT), reduced frequency of summerfallow (SF), the conversion of cropland to permanent cover crops (PC), and improved grazing land management (GM). GHG emissions were estimated with the Canadian Economic and Emissions Model for Agriculture (CEEMA). CEEMA estimates levels of production activities within the Canadian agriculture sector and calculates the emissions and removals associated with those levels of activities. The estimates indicate a decline in net emissions from 54 Tg CO2–Eq yr–1 in1990 to 52 Tg CO2–Eq yr–1 in 2008. Adoption of thesink-enhancing practices above the level projected for 2008 resulted in further declines in emissions to 48 Tg CO2–Eq yr–1 (L), 42 TgCO2–Eq yr–1 (M) or 36 Tg CO2–Eq yr–1 (H). Among thesink-enhancing practices, the conversion from conventional tillage to ZT provided the largest C sequestration potential and net reduction in GHG emissions among the scenarios. Although rates of C sequestration were generally higher for conversion of cropland to PC and adoption of improved GM, those scenarios involved smaller areas of land and therefore less C sequestration. Also, increased areas of PC were associated with an increase in livestock numbers and CH4 and N2O emissions from enteric fermentation andmanure, which partially offset the carbon sink. The CEEMA estimates indicate that soil C sinks are a viable option for achieving the UNFCCC objective of protecting and enhancing GHG sinks and reservoirs as a means of reducing GHG emissions (UNFCCC, 1992).  相似文献   

12.
Minimizing the future impacts of climate change requires reducing the greenhouse gas (GHG) load in the atmosphere. Anthropogenic emissions include many types of GHG’s as well as particulates such as black carbon and sulfate aerosols, each of which has a different effect on the atmosphere, and a different atmospheric lifetime. Several recent studies have advocated for the importance of short timescales when comparing the climate impact of different climate pollutants, placing a high relative value on short-lived pollutants, such as methane (CH4) and black carbon (BC) versus carbon dioxide (CO2). These studies have generated confusion over how to value changes in temperature that occur over short versus long timescales. We show the temperature changes that result from exchanging CO2 for CH4 using a variety of commonly suggested metrics to illustrate the trade-offs involved in potential carbon trading mechanisms that place a high value on CH4 emissions. Reducing CH4 emissions today would lead to a climate cooling of approximately ~0.5 °C, but this value will not change greatly if we delay reducing CH4 emissions by years or decades. This is not true for CO2, for which the climate is influenced by cumulative emissions. Any delay in reducing CO2 emissions is likely to lead to higher cumulative emissions, and more warming. The exact warming resulting from this delay depends on the trajectory of future CO2 emissions but using one business-as usual-projection we estimate an increase of 3/4 °C for every 15-year delay in CO2 mitigation. Overvaluing the influence of CH4 emissions on climate could easily result in our “locking” the earth into a warmer temperature trajectory, one that is temporarily masked by the short-term cooling effects of the CH4 reductions, but then persists for many generations.  相似文献   

13.
Wood continues to be a major fuel source for vast numbers of the world's people. Even in the highly industrialized countries, use of wood and wood wastes as fuel produces a small (in comparison to fossil fuels) but non-negligible amount of CO2. Although information on the worldwide harvest and use of wood is not as complete or as reliable as fossil fuel data, this paper uses what is available and develops annual estimates of CO2 emissions for the period 1968–1983. Woods are separated into two types, coniferous and non-coniferous, and average content and carbon amounts are estimated for each type. Wood utilization is divided into several categories, e.g., fuelwood, lumber, poles, and use of wood wastes as fuels in the lumber and paper industries is included. Results are given for major world regions. In recent years the worldwide CO2 emissions from wood used as fuels is estimated to be about one-tenth as much as CO2 emissions from fossil fuels. This does not include fires in the forests, either associated with forest clearing or those from natural causes.  相似文献   

14.
Presented is the assessment of the contribution that such major types of the land use in Russia as arable lands, forage lands, settlements, and peatery make to anthropogenic fluxes of carbon dioxide CO2, methane CH4, and nitrogen oxide N2O, The assessment is based on the methods of computation monitoring carried out in the period from 2000 to 2011. The results of the study demonstrated that every year arable lands cause the emission of CO2 and N2O of about 117.0 and 74.9 million t CO2 equiv, and peatery, 0.54 and 105.4 thousand t CO2 equiv, respectively. The balance of soil carbon in hayfields and pastures is close to zero. The average emissions of CH4 and N2O from the manure of pasture animals amount to 0.2 and 5.0 million t CO2 equiv/year, and those from grass fires, 276.1 and 372.5 thousand t CO2 equiv/year, respectively. The carbon balance in permanent soils of settlements is also almost close to zero, and newly built-up lands are the source of CO2 (9.5 million t/year). The natural overgrowing of fallow lands leads to the accumulation of the soil carbon (about 92.4 million t CO2/year). It was revealed that the intensity of CO2 emission is defined by the soil carbon balance and that of other gases, by the amount of nitrogen fertilizers, plant residues, and manure coming to the soil. The total emission from the land use is 106.9 million t CO2 equiv/year that makes up 4.9% of the total anthropogenic emission of greenhouse gases in the Russian Federation.  相似文献   

15.
California Governor’s Executive Order (CGEO) S-3-05 requires that California greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions be reduced to 80 % below 1990 levels by the year 2050. Meeting this target will require drastic changes in transportation technology, fuel, and behavior which will reduce criteria pollutant emissions as well as GHG emissions. The improvement to local air quality caused by the reduced criteria pollutant emissions must be calculated to fully evaluate the overall benefits and costs of CGEO S-3-05. In the present study, seven different transportation scenarios that move towards the goals of CGEO S-3-05 in the transportation sector were examined to determine how they would affect future airborne particulate matter (PM2.5) concentrations in California: (1) hydrogen fuel cells, (2) electric vehicles, (3) high efficiency vehicles, (4) public mass transit, (5) biofuels, (6) biofuels + hybrid electric vehicles, and (7) hydrogen fuel cells + electric vehicles. The air quality implications of each scenario were evaluated using a chemical transport model applied during a wintertime stagnation episode representing future climate in California. Scenarios (6) and (7) reduced population-weighted PM2.5 mass concentrations by ~9 % and PM2.5 elemental carbon (EC) concentrations by ~30 % relative to base-case predictions.  相似文献   

16.
为探讨道路交通部门节能减排的决策依据,在总结低碳车辆技术主要种类基础上,重点评述了车辆动力系统和燃料替代技术的低碳化发展现状与趋势,包括全生命周期能效和温室气体排放情况。为进一步支持车辆技术低碳化,除加强综合节能技术和混合动力技术应用、电池技术升级和燃料电池技术研发之外,需加快生物燃料二代技术的研发进程和煤基燃料路线中二氧化碳捕获和封存技术等低碳技术的应用。  相似文献   

17.
近期发布的IPCC第六次评估报告再次强调了短寿命期温室气体减排对温升减缓的作用。甲烷是最重要的短寿命期非CO2温室气体。在各国提出各自新的减排目标之后,针对甲烷减排的行动方案也越来越多。甲烷减排正在成为下一阶段各国和全球合作的重点领域之一。本文在我国碳减排目标下的能源转型基础上,结合其他非能源活动的减排排放源的减排技术选择基础上,利用IPAC模型对未来甲烷的排放情景进行了分析。在模型设定的两个情景分析基础之上,研究发现,到2050年的能源转型可明显减少能源活动的甲烷排放,和2015年相比能源活动的排放可减少67％。和其他行业相比,能源部门的甲烷减排具有更好的协同性。如果考虑进一步减排甲烷,则需要在考虑其他大气污染物减排的基础上,可通过实现天然气的进一步减排来实现。同时其他部门的甲烷减排也具有很大潜力,低甲烷排放情景可以实现到2050年将甲烷排放减少到1 494万吨,和2015年相比全范围排放可减排58％。  相似文献   

18.
本文从完整性的角度提出了中国公共建筑运营企业温室气体排放核算方法,进行了案例分析,并对其在中国未来碳排放交易市场中的应用提出了建议。研究表明,公共建筑运营企业排放核算主要采用活动数据法,核算范围包括化石燃料燃烧排放、逸散型排放、新种植树木的排放抵消、外购电力和热力的排放。案例分析表明,电力和热力引起的排放占88.32%;制冷剂逸散排放、灭火器使用引起的排放、化粪池CH4的排放、树木吸收的CO2（即排放量为负值）占比都较小;汽车移动源的排放占11.99%,是否应纳入主要依据核算排放量的用途。对中国未来碳排放交易市场,公共建筑物排放的核算范围,初期仅考虑化石燃料燃烧排放、外购电力和热力的排放是合理的。  相似文献   

19.
The allocation of CO2 emissions to specific sources is a major policy issue for international aviation, especially for determining allocations for emissions trading schemes. This paper addresses the problem by recommending a possible methodology to allocate emissions to specific sources using detailed air traffic data. The basis for the calculations is an air traffic sample for one full-day of traffic from the UK. In order to analyse aircraft fuel burn use and hence CO2 emissions, the Reorganized Air Traffic Control Mathematical Simulator (RAMS Plus) and the Advanced Emission Model (AEM III) are used. The results from these detailed simulations are compared with two of the most widely-used aviation CO2 emission estimates to have been made for the UK: the SERAS study and NETCEN estimate. Their estimates for the year 2000 are 26.1 and 31.4 Mt, respectively. In addition, the most recent NETCEN estimate for the year 2003 is 34.1 Mt of CO2. Our estimate of total aviation CO2 emissions, using detailed simulations and real air traffic data, is 34.7 Mt for the year 2004. In addition, emission estimates are compared with two global aviation emission inventories: AERO2K and SAGE. Contributions of the highest-emitting flights and aircraft types are identified. International departures dominate; 6% of flights account for 50% of total emissions. The largest aircraft emit the most per flight-km, although not per passenger-km. Different methodologies and their implications are also discussed.  相似文献   

20.
During 18–23 July 1990, 31 smoke samples were collected from an aircraft flying at low altitudes through the plumes of tropical savanna fires in the Northern Territory, Australia. The excess (above background) mixing ratios of 17 different trace gases including CO2, CO, CH4, several non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC), CH3CHO, NO x (– NO + NO2), NH3, N2O, HCN and total unspeciated NMHC and sulphur were measured. Emissionratios relative to excess CO2 and CO, and emissionfactors relative to the fuel carbon, nitrogen or sulphur content are determined for each measured species. The emission ratios and factors determined here for carbon-based gases, NO x , and N2O are in good agreement with those reported from other biomass burning studies. The ammonia data represent the first such measurements from savanna fires, and indicate that NH3 emissions are more than half the strength of NO x emissions. The emissions of NO x , NH3, N2O and HCN together represent only 27% of the volatilised fuel N, and are primarily NO x (16%) and NH3 (9%). Similarly, only 56% of the volatilised fuel S is accounted for by our measurements of total unspeciated sulphur.  相似文献   

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