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1.
Shale with high clay content has caused instability from hydration during the hydraulic fracturing process. Macro-level migration phenomenon of water molecules is induced by the chemical potential difference between low-salinity fracturing fluid and high-salinity formation brine. This study aims to establish the equation for the chemical potential difference between fracturing fluid and formation brine by theoretical deduction in order to investigate the effect of the aforementioned phenomenon on fracturing flowback. Accordingly, a mathematical model was established for the gas–water two-phase flow which driven by the chemical potential difference. Viscous force, capillarity and chemiosmosis were considered as the driving forces. A numerical simulation of fracturing fluid flowback with or without considering of the effect of chemiosmosis was performed. A simulation analysis of the water saturation and salinity profiles was also conducted. Results show that capillarity and chemiosmosis hinder fracturing fluid flowback in different degrees. As the condition worsens, they inhibit more than 80% of water to flow back out of the formation, forming a permanent water lock. This study contributes to improvement of the theory on shale gas–water two-phase flow, establishment of a flowback model that suitable for shale gas wells, and accurate evaluation of the fracturing treatment. 相似文献
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近年来,页岩气作为一种重要的非常规天然气来源,逐渐成为国内外关注的热点。当前的研究工作总体侧重于页岩气开采技术的改进与环境监测,对页岩气开采过程中水岩相互作用还少有报道。本文采用模拟实验,选取储层页岩样品,在温度90 ℃、压力10 MPa环境下,开展了CO2压裂液页岩相互作用实验研究。主要探讨页岩气开采过程中,由于常规水力压裂液以及后期超临界CO2的增注,造成的储层岩石矿物的变化以及返排液成分的变化。实验结果显示：压裂液能使岩石矿物发生溶蚀,超临界CO2的存在会进一步加剧溶蚀反应的进行,促使孔隙变大并产生更多的微孔隙,为页岩气提供更多的运移通道,有利于油气的运移。但是,存在的环境威胁不容忽视：一方面,岩石中会溶解出大量的Ca、Mg、Si元素和少量Fe、Mn等金属元素,超临界CO2、富有机质页岩以及压裂液中表面活性剂等物质在高温高压酸性环境条件下,容易生成挥发性有机物残留在地层中,极有可能沿着岩石破碎的孔隙、断裂发生迁移或泄露,从而对地下含水层造成污染;另一方面,多种成分进入高矿化度溶液体系经返排回到地表,也会增大处理返排液的难度。本文取得的实验数据和成果有助于理解页岩气储层在开采过程中可能发生的水岩相互作用过程及其潜在的环境风险。 相似文献
3.
Bingxiang Huang Pengfeng Li Jian Ma Shuliang Chen 《Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering》2014,47(4):1321-1334
Because of the advantages of integrating water pressure blasting and hydraulic fracturing, the use of hydraulic fracturing after water pressure control blasting is a method that is used to fully transform the structure of a coal-rock mass by increasing the number and range of hydraulic cracks. An experiment to study hydraulic fracturing after water pressure blasting on cement mortar samples (300 × 300 × 300 mm3) was conducted using a large-sized true triaxial hydraulic fracturing experimental system. A traditional hydraulic fracturing experiment was also performed for comparison. The experimental results show that water pressure blasting produces many blasting cracks, and follow-up hydraulic fracturing forces blasting cracks to propagate further and to form numerous multidirectional hydraulic cracks. Four macroscopic main hydraulic cracks in total were noted along the borehole axial and radial directions on the sample surfaces. Axial and radial main failure planes induced by macroscopic main hydraulic cracks split the sample into three big parts. Meanwhile, numerous local hydraulic cracks were formed on the main failure planes, in different directions and of different types. Local hydraulic cracks are mainly of three types: local hydraulic crack bands, local branched hydraulic cracks, and axial layered cracks. Because local hydraulic cracks produce multiple local layered failure planes and lamellar ruptures inside the sample, the integrity of the sample decreases greatly. The formation and propagation process of many multidirectional hydraulic cracks is affected by a combination of water pressure blasting, water pressure of fracturing, and the stress field of the surrounding rock. To a certain degree, the stress field of surrounding rock guides the formation and propagation process of the blasting crack and the follow-up hydraulic crack. Following hydraulic fracturing that has been conducted after water pressure blasting, the integrity of the sample is found to be far lower than after traditional hydraulic fracturing; moreover, both the water injection volume and water injection pressure for hydraulic fracturing after water pressure blasting are much higher than they are for traditional hydraulic fracturing. 相似文献
4.
Flowback analysis recently has been considered as a potential tool for assessing induced fractures through corresponding pressure analyses and rate transient analysis. In this paper, we study fracture closure mechanisms during the flowback of fracturing fluid after hydraulic fracturing treatments. Although it is known that flowback can be significantly affected by the geometry of the fractures and closure stress, there has not been any effort to understand the problem from the geomechanical point of view; rather, available studies assume that a fracture closes uniformly with constant fracture compressibility. The coupled geomechanics and fluid flow model presented in this paper help to elucidate how geostresses may affect fracturing fluid recovery under different conditions. We perform a scaling analysis to formulate the occurrence of different fracture closure modes and then use numerical analyses to verify our scaling parameters. The factors governing the flowback process include the mechanical and petrophysical properties of the rock as well as preexisting discontinuities such as natural fractures. Three different closure modes for fracture networks are described and numerically verified. The occurrence of each mode can dramatically affect fracturing fluid recovery. The role of fluid leakoff into the formation, fractures conductivity, and drawdown strategy are examined for each fracture closure scenario. 相似文献
5.
煤层气井压后返排,是关井待压力扩散一段时间后放喷,还是及时放喷,一直未能形成统一的认识。从压裂液、压力、关井时间等3个方面进行分析,认为煤层气井压裂后应及时放喷返排,建议时间控制在30 min内。同时根据煤层气井压裂后支撑剂立即沉降、颗粒之间出现胶结的特点,建立了压裂液返排模型。计算结果表明:压后返排时先用小油嘴控制放喷,然后逐步更换较大的油嘴放喷或者敞喷,及时返排压裂液,缩短返排时间。在煤层气井压后返排设计时,为定量选择放喷油嘴直径提供了重要的理论依据。 相似文献
6.
Gas production from shale formations by hydraulic fracturing has raised concerns about the effects on the quality of fresh groundwater. The migration of injected fracking fluids towards the surface was investigated in the North German Basin, based on the known standard lithology. This included cases with natural preferential pathways such as permeable fault zones and fracture networks. Conservative assumptions were applied in the simulation of flow and mass transport triggered by a high pressure boundary of up to 50 MPa excess pressure. The results show no significant fluid migration for a case with undisturbed cap rocks and a maximum of 41 m vertical transport within a permeable fault zone during the pressurization. Open fractures, if present, strongly control the flow field and migration; here vertical transport of fracking fluids reaches up to 200 m during hydraulic fracturing simulation. Long-term transport of the injected water was simulated for 300 years. The fracking fluid rises vertically within the fault zone up to 485 m due to buoyancy. Progressively, it is transported horizontally into sandstone layers, following the natural groundwater flow direction. In the long-term, the injected fluids are diluted to minor concentrations. Despite the presence of permeable pathways, the injected fracking fluids in the reported model did not reach near-surface aquifers, either during the hydraulic fracturing or in the long term. Therefore, the probability of impacts on shallow groundwater by the rise of fracking fluids from a deep shale-gas formation through the geological underground to the surface is small. 相似文献
7.
Large quantities of highly saline brine flow from gas wells in the Marcellus Formation after hydraulic stimulation (“fracking”). This study assesses the composition of these flowback waters from the Marcellus shale in Pennsylvania, USA. Concentrations of most inorganic components of flowback water (Cl, Br, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Sr, Ba, Ra, Fe, Mn, total dissolved solids, and others) increase with time from a well after hydraulic stimulation. Based on results in several datasets reported here, the greatest concentration of Cl− in flowback water is 151,000 mg/L. For total Ra (combined 226Ra and 228Ra) in flowback, the highest level reported is 6540 pCi/L. Flowback waters from hydraulic fracturing of Marcellus wells resemble brines produced from conventional gas wells that tap into other Paleozoic formations in the region. The Br/Cl ratio and other parameters indicate that both types of brine formed by the evaporation of seawater followed by dolomitization, sulfate reduction and subsurface mixing with seawater and/or freshwater. Trends and relationships in brine composition indicate that (1) increased salt concentration in flowback is not mainly caused by dissolution of salt or other minerals in rock units, (2) the flowback waters represent a mixture of injection waters with highly concentrated in situ brines similar to those in the other formations, and (3) these waters contain concentrations of Ra and Ba that are commonly hundreds of times the US drinking water standards. 相似文献
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咸水层CO2地质封存是减少大气中CO2排放量的有效途径。CO2注入率是衡量咸水层中CO2注入能力的有效因素,因此,研究注入速率的变化规律及提高的措施是很有工程价值的。在很多区域,地层的低渗透性限制了CO2的注入率。针对鄂尔多斯盆地的水文地质条件,通过数值模拟,探讨在低渗透性咸水层中提高CO2注入率的途径,包括改变储层中的盐度、采用水平井注入、增加注入井段的长度以及采取水力压裂等工程措施。其中改变储层中的盐度可通过在注入CO2前向储层中注入一定量的水来实现。模拟结果表明,这些方式可以有效地提高CO2注入率,其中水平井改造方式和水力压裂工程措施效果显著,盐度改造措施在地层初始含盐度较高时,会有更好的效果。研究结果可为鄂尔多斯盆地和类似地区的咸水层CO2地质封存项目提供参考。 相似文献
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This paper deals with the possible impact of hydraulic fracturing (fracking), employed in the exploitation of unconventional shale gas and tight gas reservoirs, on groundwater, which is the most important source of drinking-water in Germany and many other European countries. This assessment, which is part of an interdisciplinary study by a panel of neutral experts on the risks and environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing, is based mainly on data obtained from three ExxonMobil drilling sites in northern Germany. First, the basic technical aspects of fracking and its relevant water fluxes are explained. The type, purpose and fate of the constituents of the fracking fluids are discussed. The chemicals used in the fracking fluids are assessed with regard to their hazardous properties according to the Regulation (EC) No. 1272/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council on the classification, labelling and packaging of substances and mixtures (CLP regulation) and the German “Water Hazard Classes”. Contamination of groundwater by ingredients of fracking fluids may occur from under ground or may result from above-ground accidents associated with the transport, storage and handling of hazardous substances used as additives in fracking fluids. The degree of groundwater contamination cannot be predicted in a general way. Therefore, different dilutions of the fracking fluid in groundwater are considered. It is shown that the concentrations of most ingredients resulting from a 1:10,000 up to 1:100,000 dilution of the fracking fluid in groundwater are below health-based reference values such as the limit values of the European Drinking Water Directive, the WHO Guideline Values for Drinking-water Quality, and other health-based guide values for drinking-water. Regarding the salinity of fracking fluids, a dilution of 1:1,000 is sufficient to reach concentrations which are acceptable for drinking-water. From the human-toxicological point of view, the constituents of flowback water are more problematic with respect to drinking-water produced from groundwater than those of the fracking fluids. The few reliable data which have become available, as well as hydrogeological considerations, point in the direction of considerable salt concentrations and toxic constituents, e.g., Hg, As, Pb, Zn, Cd, BTX, PAHs, or even radioactive elements. The identification and assessment of reaction products and metabolites, which are produced as a result of the fracking operation and the metabolic activity of microorganisms, are important topics for further research. The recommendations include the need for a better understanding of the environmental impact of fracking operations, especially with regard to the development of sustainable rules for planning, permission, performance and management of fracking, and for the monitoring of groundwater quality around fracked drilling sites. 相似文献
11.
Hydraulic fracturing is an important technological advance in the extraction of natural gas and petroleum from black shales, but water injected into shale formations in the fracturing process returns with extraordinarily high total-dissolved-solids (TDS) and high concentrations of barium, Ba. It is generally assumed that high TDS comes from the mixing of surface water (injected fluid) with Na–Ca–Cl formation brines containing elevated Ba, but the mechanisms by which such mixing might occur are disputed. Here we show that Ba in water co-produced with gas could originate from water-rock reactions, with Ba levels observed in produced waters reached on a time scale relevant to hydraulic fracturing operations. We examined samples from three drill cores from the Marcellus Shale in Pennsylvania and New York to determine the possible water-rock reactions that release barium during hydraulic fracturing. Two samples, one containing microcrystalline barite (BaSO4) and one without barite, contain elevated concentrations of Ba relative to the crustal average for shale rocks. A third sample is slightly depleted in Ba relative to the crustal average. Micro-XRF measurements and SEM/EDS analysis combined with chemical sequential extraction methods reveal that a majority of the Ba in all samples (55–77 wt.%) is present in clays and can only be leached from the rock by dissolution in hydrofluoric acid. Thus, a majority of barium in our samples is relatively inaccessible to leaching under hydraulic fracturing conditions. However, the balance of Ba in the rocks is contained in phases that are potentially leachable during hydraulic fracturing (e.g., soluble salts, exchangeable sites on clays, carbonates, barite, organics).We next studied how shale reacts with water at elevated temperatures (80 °C), low Eh (−100 to −200 mV), and a range of ionic strengths (IS = 0.85–6.4) that emulate conditions prevalent at depth during hydraulic fracturing. Our experimental results indicate that the amount of Ba released from the bulk rock has a positive correlation with the ionic strength of the reacting fluid. Between 5 and 25% of the total Ba in the rock can be leached from shale under ionic strength conditions and leachate compositions typical of produced waters over a contact time of just 7 days. We suggest that reductive weathering of black shale occurs during hydraulic fracturing due to: 1) Ba2+ in clays exchanging with Na+ and Ca2+ ions that are present in high concentrations in produced water, and 2) increased solubility and dissolution kinetics of barite under high ionic strength conditions. At the low Eh conditions prevalent during hydraulic fracturing the sulfate deficient water allows Ba to be dissolved into the produced water. Based on Ba yields determined from laboratory leaching experiments of Marcellus Shale and a reasonable estimate of the water/rock mass ratio during hydraulic fracturing, we suggest that all of the Ba in produced water can be reconciled with leaching directly from the fractured rock. 相似文献
12.
TX1井是四川盆地外围第一口针对牛蹄塘组页岩压裂的井,岩心现场解析含气量为1.00~3.06m3/t,含气性较好,展现了较好的勘探前景.但复杂构造以及下部含水层对后期储层改造提供了挑战.对TX1井进行了压裂改造,返排过程中气体点火2~3m,但后期一直出水,返排率大于100%.利用Meyer软件进行压裂拟合评价,结果显示TX1井在压裂过程中因沟通了底部高含水层,导致压后出水严重;压裂改造未形成复杂的裂缝网络,限制了储层改造的效果.因此认为直井压裂改造受体积的限制,只能作为对页岩储层含气性与产能的评价手段,页岩气商业性开发还需通过水平井钻井和大规模的分段压裂改造来实现.该井的钻探施工与压裂改造经验为本地区下一步勘探开发指明了方向. 相似文献
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H. Zamanian M. Sameti A. Pazoki N. Barani F. Ahmadnejad 《Arabian Journal of Geosciences》2017,10(3):54
The Sarvian Fe skarn deposit is located in the Urumieh–Dokhtar magmatic arc, western Iran. The Sarvian quartz diorite intruded the surrounding Permian to Tertiary limy formation, culminated in thermal metamorphism as well as skarnification in which the Sarvian deposit formed. Microthermometry studies in the Sarvian skarn deposit reveal two distinct inclusion groups; group A with medium–high temperature and hypersaline and group B with low–medium temperature and low salinity. Group A inclusions which are entrapped during formation of prograde are thought to be derived from the magmatic source. Fluid boiling and subsequent developing of hydraulic fracturing led to inflow and/or mixing of early magmatic fluids (group A) with circulating groundwater culminated in formation of low salinity and low temperature fluid inclusions (group B) during the formation of retrograde assemblage. Fluid inclusion thermometry reveals the formation temperature and the salinity of 300–370 °C and 31–33 wt% NaCl for the prograde stage and 180–230 °C and 1–15 wt% NaCl for the retrograde stage of skarnification at Sarvian skarn rocks. Fe-mineralization as well as hydrothermal minerals occurred during retrograde metasomatism. The estimated depth and pressure of occurrence for prograde stage are 1000–1200 m and 100–150 bars, and for retrograde stage, these are about 200 m and 50 bars, respectively. Garnet and pyroxene, as the main constituent minerals of prograde stage, are the most informative minerals offering a suitable tool to constrain the skarnification conditions. Garnets in the Sarvian deposit are mainly grossular and andradite, showing both normal and inverse zoning as the result of variation in their chemical composition. Such types of zoning represent alternation of high acidity oxidation and low acidity oxidation conditions that were prevailed on skarnification in the Sarvian prograde assemblage. Also, chemical composition of the Sarvian pyroxenes shows an alternation of high oxygen fugacity and low oxygen fugacity conditions for their formation. This is also supported by fluctuation of the ratios of andradite to grossular and diopside to hedenbergite, denoting to an obvious shifting that was prevailed between oxidizing and redox conditions during formation of prograde assemblage in the Sarvian. Garnet–pyroxene thermometry determines the formation temperature of prograde assemblage between 370 and 550 °C at Sarvian skarn rocks which is verified also by fluid inclusion thermometry. Decomposition of limestone by reaction of high-temperature hydrothermal fluids with carbonate host rock resulted in injection of CO2 into the Sarvian system that caused oxidation, changing Fe+2 to Fe+3 culminated in the magnetite deposition. 相似文献
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In order to determine the rock mechanics characteristics, a uniaxial compression experiment for the hard sandstone in the 6305 working face of Jining No.3 Coal Mine was designed. The experimental results show that the bending energy is weakly impacted and the bending energy index is 66 kJ. To crack into the hard roof to prevent roof formation of rock burst with the Polish hydraulic fracturing technology. According to on-site hydraulic fracturing test, hydraulic fracturing radius of 6305 working face can reach 5–15 m. Finally, there is a little vibration, and energy is mainly concentrated range from 1000 to 10,000 J from the characteristics of mine waveform and spectrum distribution through microseismic monitoring system during the fracturing process. It shows that some microseismic events induced by hard roof after hydraulic fracturing have achieved the purpose of slow relief of hard roof and prevent the occurrence of rock burst. 相似文献
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煤层气钻井、压裂等作业过程中高pH值工作液必然与煤岩接触,工作液与煤岩接触后将使煤层长期处于碱性环境,将对煤层产生严重损害。为模拟高pH值工作液对煤层造成的损害,以宁武盆地9号煤层为研究对象,针对天然柱状煤样及人造裂缝煤样系统开展了流体pH值逐渐升高对煤层渗透率的影响实验,并针对不同pH值流体开展了毛管自吸、液相返排及应力敏感实验。研究结果表明,煤岩具有较强的碱敏性损害,与地层水相比煤岩对高pH值工作液具有更强的自吸能力且返排率较低,并且煤岩与碱性流体作用后应力敏感性系数增大。结合润湿性测定及扫描电镜分析结果,指出工作液pH值越高,润湿性越强,同时高pH值工作液与煤岩接触后导致煤岩微结构失稳、阳离子交换吸附;高pH值工作液与地层水接触后相互作用生成无机垢以及煤岩具有很强的吸附或吸收各类液体的能力等是引起煤层损害的主要原因,并且碱性流体与煤岩作用后弱化了煤岩力学强度,强化了煤岩的应力敏感性。 相似文献
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为了解决目前煤系非常规天然气压裂液体系应用灵活性差、性能不可调问题,研究了一体化压裂液体系。以3种一体化稠化剂为研究对象,结合现场黏土稳定剂、助排剂和破胶剂,开展一体化压裂液体系增黏、减阻、悬砂、耐温抗剪切、破胶、添加剂配伍性、防膨和表面张力实验评价,并分析一体化压裂液现场应用效果。结果表明,一体化压裂液体系黏度灵活可调,黏度随一体化稠化剂含量增加而增大,黏度调整区间为3~200 mPa·s,高黏液体悬砂性能优异,体积分数为1.0%的一体化压裂液在60℃、100 S?1剪切条件下黏度大于100 mPa·s;一体化压裂液体系与各类添加剂配伍性良好,易破胶,减阻率、防膨率均大于70%,表面张力小于28 mN/m。其一体化主要体现在功能性和应用性两个方面,功能上集滑溜水、线性胶、交联液压裂液体系于一体,能够满足各类气层压裂改造工艺对造缝、减阻、防膨、携砂、快速返排等性能的要求;应用上在鄂尔多斯盆地东缘现场煤层气、页岩气、致密砂岩气井均取得了成功应用。一体化压裂液推动了非常规气压裂工艺试验,提高了压裂改造效果,对各类气层以及压裂改造工艺具有良好的适应性。 相似文献
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Origin of a large breccia-vein system in the Sanerlin uranium deposit, southern China: a reinterpretation 总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1
The early Tertiary Sanerlin uranium deposit is located near the southwestern margin of the Chaling-Yongxing pull-apart basin defined by the Chaling-Yongxing and Chenxian-Linwu sinistral strike-slip faults in southern China. The uranium ores are hosted in 15 breccia-vein bodies, which are separately located in the cores of three secondary anticlines of the Upper Permian Dangchong Formation. Individual breccia-vein bodies are composed of fragments of silicified shale and sandstone from the Dangchong Formation, and quartz veinlets as cements. These fragments, together with quartz veins, form a mosaic texture. Hydrothermal pitchblende is the only commercial uranium mineral, mainly occurring as disseminated grains within quartz veins or coating fragments. Other metallic minerals include molybdenite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, and red microcrystalline hematite. Fluid inclusions in quartz veins have homogenization temperatures ranging from 150 to 280 °C, and calculated salinity values between 5.6 and 13.4 wt% NaCl equivalent. Stable isotope analyses show that the mineralizing fluid was characterized by '18O values of -2.2 to +2.6 and 'DH2O values of -134 to -110. These analytical data demonstrate that hydrothermal fluids were mainly derived from formation waters (brines) of the Chaling-Yongxing basin. Fluid overpressuring was caused by an abnormal geothermal gradient and impermeable shales in the deposit area. The geometry, texture, and structure of the breccia-vein system, along with the fluid pressure estimates, suggest that hydraulic fracturing generated the mineralized breccia-vein system. Pitchblende and associated minerals were deposited when gaseous phases were released abruptly from the ore fluids due to the hydraulic fracturing. 相似文献
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In this study, the effects of the temperature difference between hydraulic fracturing fluid and rock formation on the time‐dependent evolution of fracture width were investigated using a newly derived one‐dimensional anisotropic porothermoelastic analytical solution. The solution is shown to correctly reproduce existing solutions for special cases and corrections for an earlier publication are provided. An analysis of time‐dependent fracture width evolution using Woodford Shale data was also presented. It was found that when the fracturing fluid has the same temperature as the shale formation, the fracture gradually closes back after the initial opening due to the invasion of the fracturing fluid. Practically, in this scenario, proppants should be pumped into the fracture as soon as possible to obtain maximum fracture conductivity. On the other hand, with a fracturing fluid 60 °C colder than the formation, the thermal contraction of the rock dominates the fracture aperture evolution, resulting in a fracture aperture approximately 70% larger than that produced by the hotter fracturing fluid. Consequently, in this case, it is beneficial to delay proppant placement to take advantage of the widening fractures. Finally, it was found that the fracture aperture is directly controlled by the spacing of natural fractures. Therefore, the presence of natural fractures in the shale formation and their spacing influence not only the type of hydraulic fractures created but also what kind and size of proppants should be used to keep them open. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 相似文献