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1.
Several long‐term studies have monitored populations of algal symbionts, Symbiodinium sp., in coral hosts over different temporal and spatial scales, and among multiple host species. The extension of these studies to include environmental pools of algal symbionts from sources such as the water column, sediments, free‐floating mucus mats and those settling on biofilms has only been studied by a few, yet has the potential to enhance our understanding of the dynamics and controls on symbiont populations. Adaptive changes in the coral symbiont complement rely either on the uptake of new strains from the environment or population expansion of rarer strains in the existing symbiont population. The relative scope for these alternative pathways of uptake is unknown. This study therefore examined spatial changes in Symbiodinium clades within the water column at two different time periods and compared these with other environmental pools (biofilms, sediments, and mucus mats) and those within the dominant reef‐building species at the study site, Acropora muricata. A diversity of algal symbiont clades were detected in environmental pools, with specific clades associated with different habitats. At an island scale, there was significant variation in clade composition between sites separated by 0.5–7 km, a result which was repeated for both sample periods encompassing different seasons (March 2009 and August 2010). Although no single environmental pool contained a Symbiodinium complement comparable to that of the host coral species investigated, the dominant coral Symbiodinium were available in combinations of the environmental pools, indicating that the coral has the potential to obtain its symbionts from a variety of environmental sources.  相似文献   

2.
The genus Symbiodinium plays an essential role in the resistance and survival of reef‐building corals during temperature anomalies. Coral colonies inhabiting the Persian Gulf (PG) experience extended periods of different stresses. Kish Island is located in the harsh environment of the Northern PG with previously reported bleaching episodes. Samples of six coral species from Northwestern Kish Island were analysed by internal transcribed spacer 2 of ribosomal DNA to identify in hospite Symbiodinium populations. The results showed that lineage D of Symbiodinium was the most prevalent clade among different coral colonies, while clade C was only detected in symbiosis with a single coral species. However, the detected Symbiodinium subclades belonged to two host generalists. The predominance of the stress tolerant Symbiodinium trenchii and subclade C3 could suggest an acclimatization strategy to cope with the hostile environment of the PG.  相似文献   

3.
Reef-building corals harbor symbiotic dinoflagellates, Symbiodinium spp., which are currently divided into several clades. The responses of corals associated with different Symbiodinium clades to thermal stress are not well understood, especially at a gene expression level. Juveniles of the coral Acropora tenuis inoculated with different algal types (clade A or D) were exposed to thermal stress and the expression levels of four putative stress-responsive genes, including genes coding green and red fluorescent proteins, an oxidative stress-responsive protein, and an ascorbic acid transporter, were analyzed by quantitative real-time PCR. The expression levels of the four genes decreased at high temperatures if juveniles were associated with clade A symbionts but increased if the symbionts were in clade D. The intensity of green fluorescence increased with temperature in clade D symbionts harboring juveniles, but not in juveniles associated with clade A symbionts. The present results suggest that genotypes of endosymbiotic algae affect the thermal stress responses of the coral juveniles.  相似文献   

4.
Decadal populations changes in four coral taxa and their patterns of association with algal symbionts (Symbiodinium spp. – 10 years of sampling) were examined on Kenyan back reefs over a period of climatic disturbances (1991?2009). Some of the better surviving taxa, Pavona and Pocillopora, were associated with variable temperature regimes and >50% of sampled colonies in these taxa had some of the more thermally tolerant Symbiodinium in clade D. In contrast, only around 35% of Acropora and no branching forms of Porites contained detectable levels of clade D, and both taxa experienced high levels of thermally‐induced mortality and poor recovery. Overall, however the relationship between Symbiodinium clade and population‐level success of coral hosts was not strong, and differential success inside and outside fisheries closures suggests that other factors, such as predation on corals, were also influential. Consequently, while Symbiodinium in clade D may contribute to the success of coral hosts across thermal disturbances, multiple ecological factors and additional biological traits also influence their long‐term survival.  相似文献   

5.
The ecological and economic values of coral reef communities have encouraged efforts to implement periodic visual survey programs to secure their conservation. To date, visual monitoring‐based approaches have detected bleaching events weeks or months after the initial onset. An evaluation of the stress response of coral colonies, as well as their ability to resist and recover from the stress events, may increase our understanding of the physiological processes underling the stress and/or acclimation responses. Coral bleaching events, caused primarily by abnormally high temperatures, are continuously affecting coral communities worldwide. To evaluate the stress and recovery responses of the reef‐building coral Pocillopora verrucosa, a laboratory study was conducted herein. Coral nubbins were exposed to high temperatures to induce bleaching, and their ability to resist and recover from bleaching was subsequently monitored after returning the corals to ambient temperature. Lipid and chlorophyll concentrations, as well as Symbiodinium spp. density, decreased in samples exposed to nearly 31°C, slowly recovering to near‐control levels upon return to non‐stressful conditions. The present data set allows for an assessment of the vulnerability and ability of this common species to resist sub‐optimal environmental conditions, particularly the thermal stress events that will occur more commonly in their habitats as global seawater temperatures continue to rise.  相似文献   

6.
通过nlsrDNA(nuclear large-subunit ribosomal DNA)及nssrDNA(nuclear small-subunit ribosomal DNA)的PCR-RFLP研究广东徐闻地区8科15属25种62个造礁石珊瑚样本的共生藻。结果表明,共生藻nlsrDNA的RsaI酶切基因型只存在一种,属于C系群共生藻;而nssrDNA的MobⅠ和TaqⅠ两种酶切都存在两种基因型。实验进一步通过PCR直接测序法得到62个造礁石珊瑚样品的共生藻ITS序列,与GenBank上的4种虫黄藻ITS序列构建Neighbor-Joining系统发育树,结果表明该区的造礁石珊瑚共生两种不同种类(亚系群)的共生藻,分别为C1亚系群与C15亚系群共生藻,两个亚系群间的遗传距离为0.019。广东徐闻地区造礁石珊瑚共生藻多样性偏低,暗示该地区珊瑚礁生态系统应对环境变化的能力可能较弱。  相似文献   

7.
Understanding the ecology and evolution of the cnidarian-algal symbiosis is of major scientific interest as it is sensitive to temperature and strong light and may therefore be susceptible to climate change. The stability of this mutualism is often mediated by host color pigments that influence photosynthetic activity in symbiotic dinoflagellates either by providing the photosystem with irradiance of suitable wavelength or by protecting it from much too much and potentially damaging light. Like scleractinian corals, the upside-down jellyfish, Cassiopea andromeda, relies heavily on the nutrients provided by its symbionts of the dinoflagellate genus Symbiodinium. It occurs in several conspicuously different color morphs and is found in habitats with high levels of irradiation. We tested whether the color morphs of Cassiopea were correlated with the Symbiodinium distribution in the host and whether host color was associated with different clades of Symbiodinium. We found that the presence of color pigment did not correlate with the distribution of Symbiodinium in the host. Symbiodinium was found in both the colored tentacles of the jellyfish and the colorless feeding tentacles. At least six different color morphs co-occurred in the very shallow waters of the Red Sea, but they all hosted a single Symbiodinium clade (clade A1). Therefore, no correlation of host color morph and Symbiodinium clade could be found. Photoaccumulative or photoprotective functions of host pigments, as proposed for some scleractinian corals, thus seem unlikely in the colored tentacles (vesicles) of the upside-down jellyfish Cassiopea andromeda.  相似文献   

8.
Pollution, turbidity and coral bleaching history, as well as coral diversity, vary along the Tanzanian coastline. Prior to this study, it was not known whether exposure to such environmental variation might have influenced the diversity and distribution of Symbiodinium along this coastline. Such information can provide insight into whether Tanzanian reef-building corals develop adaptation to current trends of climate change. Here, 10 reef-building coral samples were collected from different reefs along the Tanzanian coast with different micro-environments and bleaching histories. The ITS-2 region of ribosomal DNA was employed in the characterisation of Symbiodinium harboured by reef-building corals. DGGE fingerprints and DNA sequences showed that most coral species host a single Symbiodinium type, which is maintained throughout the coast regardless of local environmental differences. We present polymorphic symbioses in Acropora spp., Millepora sp. and Galaxea fascicularis in mainly turbid and warm environments as a sign of adaptation to harsh conditions. However, such adaptation may not provide marked resistance to bleaching because Acropora is a bleaching-susceptible genus.  相似文献   

9.
Sven Zea 《Marine Ecology》2011,32(2):162-173
The Caribbean sponge Cliona delitrix is among the strongest reef space competitors; it is able to overpower entire coral heads by undermining coral polyps. It has become abundant in reefs exposed to organic pollution, such as San Andrés Island, Colombia, SW Caribbean. Forty‐four sponge‐colonized coral colonies were followed‐up for 13 months to establish the circumstances and the speed at which this sponge advances laterally into live coral tissue and the coral tissue retreats. Cliona delitrix presence and abundance was recorded at seven stations to interpret current reef space and coral species colonization trends. The spread of C. delitrix on a coral colony was preceded by a band of dead coral a few millimeters to several centimeters wide. However, the sponge was directly responsible for coral death only when live coral tissue was within about 2 cm distance; coral death became sponge advance‐independent at greater distances, being indirectly dependent on other conditions that tend to accelerate its retreat. Cliona delitrix advanced fastest into recently killed clean coral calices; however, sponge spread slowed down when these became colonized by algae. The lateral advance of C. delitrix was slower than other Cliona spp. encrusting excavating sponges, probably owing to the greater depth of its excavation into the substratum. Cliona delitrix prefers elevated portions of massive corals, apparently settling on recently dead areas. It currently inhabits 6–9% of colonies in reefs bordering San Andrés. It was found more frequently in Siderastrea siderea (the most abundant local massive coral), which is apparently more susceptible to tissue mortality than other corals. Current massive coral mortality caused by C. delitrix could initially change the relative proportions of coral species and in the long‐term favor foliose and branching corals.  相似文献   

10.
Increasing sea‐surface temperatures and ocean acidification (OA) are impacting physiologic processes in a variety of marine organisms. Many sea anemones, corals and jellies in the phylum Cnidaria form endosymbiotic relationships with Symbiodinium spp. (phylum Dinoflagellata) supply the hosts with fixed carbon from photosynthesis. Much work has focused on the generally negative effects of rising temperature and OA on calcification in Symbiodinium‐coral symbioses, but has not directly measured symbiont photosynthesis in hospite or fixed carbon translocation from symbiont to host. Symbiodinium species or types vary in their environmental tolerance and photosynthetic capacity; therefore, primary production in symbiotic associations can vary with symbiont type. However, symbiont type has not been identified in a large portion of Symbiodinium?cnidarian studies. Future climate conditions and OA may favor non‐calcifying, soft‐bodied cnidarians, including zoanthids. Here we show that two zoanthid species, Palythoa sp. and Zoanthus sp., harboring different symbiont types (C1 and A4), had very different responses to increased temperature and increased partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2), or dissolved CO2, and low pH. Thermal stress did not affect carbon fixation or fixed carbon translocation in the Zoanthus sp./A4 association, and high pCO2/low pH increased carbon fixation. In contrast, both thermal stress and high pCO2/low pH greatly inhibited carbon fixation in the Palythoa sp./C1 association. However, the combined treatment of high temperature and high pCO2 increased carbon fixation relative to the treatment of high temperature alone. Our observations support the growing body of evidence that demonstrates that the response of symbiotic cnidarians to thermal stress and OA must be considered on a host‐specific and symbiont‐specific basis. In addition, we show that the effects of increased temperature and pCO2 on photosynthesis may change when these two stressors are combined. Understanding how carbon fixation and translocation varies among different host?symbiont combinations is critical to predicting which Symbiodinium associations may persist in warm, acidified oceans.  相似文献   

11.
海南岛西北部海域珊瑚礁造礁石珊瑚种类组成与分布   总被引：1，自引：0，他引：1  
调查了海南岛西北部海域造礁石珊瑚种类的多样性及分布.结果表明:共发现50种造礁石珊瑚和1种多孔螅.海南岛西北部造礁石珊瑚优势种为澄黄滨珊瑚(Porites lutea)和丛生盔形珊瑚(Galaxea fascicularis),与历史资料相比优势种发生明显变化;海南岛西北部海域造礁石珊瑚覆盖率急剧下降,是由自然因素和人为活动共同造成;海南岛西北部海域是北部湾、琼州海峡和南海的重要交汇点,可能是造礁石珊瑚幼虫扩散的重要通道,对华南沿岸造礁石珊瑚资源自然恢复起到重要作用.因此,未来的海洋管理应该加强对珊瑚礁的保护力度,开发利用与环境保护并重,这样才能有效保护海南岛西北部海域的珊瑚礁.  相似文献   

12.
Although underwater visual census (UVC) is the most frequently used technique for quantifying reef fish assemblages, remote video analysis has been gaining attention as a potential alternative. In the South Atlantic Ocean, Millepora spp. (class Hydrozoa) are the only branching coral species; however, little is known about the ecological role that they play for reef fish communities. We compared these two observation methods (remote video and UVC) to estimate reef fish abundance and species richness associated with colonies of the fire‐coral Millepora alcicornis at Tamandaré Reefs, Northeast Brazil. Additionally, the two different techniques were used to compare species behaviour in association with fire‐corals in order to examine the biases associated with each technique and provide useful information for behavioural ecologists studying fish–coral associations. There were no differences in reef fish abundance or species richness sampled by remote video or UVC. However, a significant difference in the behaviour of associated fish was recorded between the two methods. In the presence of a diver carrying out a UVC, fish were observed spending more time sheltered amongst the coral branches compared with passively swimming on coral colonies with the remote video technique. Specifically, on the remote video recordings agonistic interactions between fish and passive swimming accounted for 33.3% and 22.2% of the census time, respectively. By comparison, when observed by a diver fish spent 34.8% of their time sheltering amongst the coral branches. We demonstrate that both techniques are similarly effective for recording fish abundance and species richness associated with fire‐corals. However, differences were observed in the ability of each method to detect the behaviour of coral‐associated fishes. Our findings show that behavioural ecologists studying complex fish–coral associations need to ensure that their aims are clearly defined and that they choose the most appropriate technique for their study in order to minimize methodological biases.  相似文献   

13.
珊瑚移植一直被认为是增加退化珊瑚礁上珊瑚数量的重要手段之一。为了调查多种珊瑚移植方法和不同珊瑚种类的移植效果,我们选择了已严重退化并仍面临着人类和自然环境胁迫的三亚鹿回头珊瑚礁作为移植地,对5种珊瑚共902个断枝利用4种方法进行了移植。在移植后的10个月,移植珊瑚的存活率为45.5%。移植方法对于不同珊瑚种类具有不同效果,但没有一种方法能够对所有珊瑚的移植效果产生促进作用。虽然对于叶状蔷薇珊瑚（Montipora foliosa）和风信子鹿角珊瑚（Acropora hyacinthus）来说,适合的移植方法能够减缓其死亡速率,但并不能改变其死亡趋势。叶状蔷薇珊瑚和风信子鹿角珊瑚的移植个体呈现出高死亡率和明显的存活组织面积下降,而扁枝滨珊瑚（Porites andrewsi）和丛生盔形珊瑚（Galaxea fascicularis）死亡率和组织部分死亡率则优于前两者。扁枝滨珊瑚和丛生盔形珊瑚仅在一种移植方法中出现了存活组织面积明显增长。鹿角杯形珊瑚（Pocillopora damicornis）是移植珊瑚中唯一一种在所有移植方法上都呈现珊瑚平均存活面积增长的种类。实验结果说明在受到高度胁迫的海域进行珊瑚移植很难取得满意效果,珊瑚种类的选择对胁迫环境下的珊瑚移植效果具有决定性影响,而移植方法只能在部分程度上改善移植效果,但无法弥补鹿回头环境压力对敏感种类胁迫造成的影响。在鹿回头珊瑚礁需首先治理对珊瑚造成胁迫的因子,再进行珊瑚移植,并应优先考虑移植环境耐受性高的珊瑚种类。  相似文献   

14.
Terrigenous sediment in the nearshore environment can pose both acute and chronic stresses to coral reefs. The reef flat off southern Molokai, Hawaii, typically experiences daily turbidity events, in which trade winds and tides combine to resuspend terrigenous sediment and transport it alongshore. These chronic turbidity events could play a role in restricting coral distribution on the reef flat by reducing the light available for photosynthesis. This study describes the effects of these turbidity events on the Hawaiian reef coral Montipora capitata using in situ diurnal measurements of turbidity, light levels, and chlorophyll fluorescence yield via pulse-amplitude-modulated (PAM) fluorometry. Average surface irradiance was similar in the morning and the afternoon, while increased afternoon turbidity resulted in lower subsurface irradiance, higher fluorescence yield (ΔF/Fm′), and lower relative electron transport rates (rETR). Model calculations based on observed light extinction coeffecients suggest that in the absence of turbidity events, afternoon subsurface irradiances would be 1.43 times higher than observed, resulting in rETR for M. capitata that are 1.40 times higher.  相似文献   

15.
Recent studies suggest a future increase in sponge bioerosion as an outcome of coral reef decline around the world. However, the factors that shape boring sponge assemblages in coral reefs are not currently well understood. This work presents the results of a 17‐month assessment of the presence and species richness of boring sponges in fragments collected from living corals, dead coral reef matrix and coral rubble from Punta de Mita and Isabel Island, two coral reefs from the central coast of the Mexican Pacific Ocean. Both localities have a high cover of dead corals generated by past El Niño Southern Oscillation events, but Punta de Mita was also highly exposed to anthropogenic impacts. Additionally, environmental factors (water transparency, water movement, temperature, sediment deposition, SST, and chlorophyll concentration) were assessed to test the hypothesis that environmental conditions which are potentially harmful for corals can enhance sponge bioerosion. Isabel Island and Punta de Mita showed a similar species richness (13 and 11 species, respectively) but boring sponge presence in both live and dead corals was higher at Isabel Island (57.6%) than at Punta de Mita (35.7%). The same result was obtained when each type of substrate was analysed separately: dead coral reef matrix (81.3% versus 55.5%), coral rubble (47.7% versus 20.0%) and living corals (43.7% versus 31.7%). A principal components analysis showed a higher environmental heterogeneity at Punta de Mita, as well as important environmental differences between Punta de Mita and Isabel Island, due to sediment deposition (2.0 versus 0.2 kg·m?2·d?1) and water movement (24.5% versus 20.5% plaster dissolution day?1), that were also negatively correlated with boring sponge presence (r = ?0.7). By analysing the boring sponge assemblage, we found that environmental settings, together with habitat availability (i.e., dead coral substrate) differentiated assemblage structure at both localities. Major structural differences were largely due to species such as Cliona vermifera, Cliona tropicalis and Aka cryptica. In conclusion, factors such as habitat availability favored the presence of boring sponges but some environmental factors such as abrasion resulting from moving sediment acted restrictively, and exerted a major role in structuring boring sponge assemblages in the Mexican Pacific.  相似文献   

16.
Inorganic nutrient contents of mucus released by Acropora corals and its utilization by heterotrophic bacteria at several different hour intervals in the coral mucus were investigated at a coral reef in Malaysia. The dissolved inorganic phosphate (DIP) concentration was 135‐fold higher than in the ambient seawater, probably due to inorganic P release from the coral gut cavity. We experimentally confirmed that heterotrophic bacteria rapidly (within 8 h) consumed ca. 80% of the initial concentration of DIP derived from coral mucus. High DIP concentration in coral mucus may enhance heterotrophic bacterial production and associated carbon flow in the microbial loop of reef ecosystems.  相似文献   

17.
There is at present a ‘coral reef crisis’; one of the more drastic consequences of this is a phase shift, in which reef‐building corals are replaced by non‐reef building benthos such as macroalgae and soft corals. Previous studies have principally focused on the shift to macroalgae. Our goal was to investigate whether the dominance of the zoanthid Epizoanthus gabrieli on some reefs of Todos os Santos Bay, Brazil, represented a non‐algal phase shift. In 2003, we identified a high cover of this species on two reefs (52% and 70%), but only in 2007 was it possible to confirm a reduction in coral cover. This dominance has persisted for over 9 years, characterizing a true phase shift. This loss of coral cover may be a result of anthropogenic disturbances within the bay; however, given the large number of human impacts, further studies are needed to identify specific causes of this shift. Although there are some reports of phase shift involving species pertaining to the Class Anthozoa, this is the first report of this phenomenon involving the order Zoanthidea.  相似文献   

18.
Abstract. Two field experiments were performed on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia, at Orpheus Island and Lizard Island, respectively, to investigate the effects of allelopathic soft corals on survivorship and community structure of scleractinian coral spat. Ceramic tiles were placed around the allelopathic soft corals Sinularia flexibilis (Quoy & Gaimard 1833) and Sarcophyton glaucum (Quoy & Gaimard 1833), and controls. One control consisted of settlement plates surrounding a scleractinian coral (non‐allelopathic planktivore); another control had no adult soft or scleractinian coral present. The experimental soft corals affected the recruitment of various taxonomic groups of coral spat differentially, as evidenced by the diversity of coral spat settling in treatments and controls. At Orpheus Island (O.I., n = 1038 spat) and Lizard Island (L.I., n = 7032 spat), there were significant differences between recruitment success of the two dominant coral taxa, Pocilloporidae (O.I., 61.4 %; L.I., 20.5 %) and Acroporidae (O.I., 33.7 %; L.I., 53 %). Settlement plates exposed to Sinularia flexibilis at either site had the lowest proportion of acroporid recruits. Diversity indices (Shannon‐Wiener Indices) varied significantly between treatments at both Orpheus and Lizard Islands. This appears to be due to selective inhibition of acroporid spat by Sinularia flexibilis at both sites. Growth of coral spat was higher on settlement plates in the presence of Sarcophyton at Lizard Island. Settlement of most associated epibiota was generally inhibited under these conditions. Coral spat survivorship was highest in the presence of Sinularia at Orpheus ­Island; at Lizard Island, this was the case with the Sarcophyton treatment. Higher survivorship, and in some cases growth, of coral spat near soft corals was apparently due to reduced competition for space between spat and associated epibiota. This hypothesis is supported by the results of a sister experiment where a coating of Sinularia flexibilis extract on settlement tiles significantly decreased fouling by sessile epibiota. Soft corals have an allelopathic effect on recruitment and early development of scleractinian corals and, consequently, on early coral reef community succession.  相似文献   

19.
Changes in the relative abundance of benthic groups on the barrier fore reef at Carrie Bow Cay, Belize, point to a significant reduction of corals and an expansion of the sponge community in 1995–2009. Fifty‐one species are now present in the four geomorphological zones of this reef: the low‐relief spur‐and‐groove zone, the inner reef slope, the outer ridge, and the fore‐reef slope (to a depth of 30 m). Five species are new additions to the sponge fauna reported for Belize, and six species account for 42.6% of the total assemblage: Niphates erecta (9.60%), Aiolochroia crassa (8.8%), Niphates digitalis (6.9%), Callyspongia plicifera (6.63%), Aplysina archeri (5.37%) and Xestospongia muta (5.37%). Species richness, average density, diversity and evenness indexes are statistically similar in these four zones but some species appear to be more dominant in certain areas. In the same 30 years, coral cover has decreased by more than 90%, while the octocoral cover has greatly increased (by as much as 10‐fold in the low‐relief spur‐and‐groove zone). Thus the Carrie Bow fore reef appears to be undergoing a transition from coral dominance in the late 1970s to algae dominance today, with other benthic groups such as sponges and octocorals showing signs of gradual recovery.  相似文献   

20.
Degradation and mortality of corals is increasing worldwide and is expected to have significant effects on coral reef fish; hence studies on these effects are essential. In the present study, a field experiment was set up within Mafia Island Marine Park in Tanzania (East Africa) to examine the effects of bleaching and habitat structure on colonisation of coral reef fish assemblages. Live and bleached staghorn coral Acropora formosa was transplanted onto plots in a site dominated by sand and rubble, and the experimental design comprised of three treatments: live coral, bleached coral and eroded coral rubble. There was an immediate increase (within 24 h) in fish abundance and diversity in the two treatments with standing corals. Overall, live and bleached coral plots showed similar effects, but differed from the eroded coral plots which had a much lower abundance and diversity of fish. In general, fish species diversity changed with time over the study period while fish abundance did not. Multivariate analyses showed that while there were differences in fish assemblage structure between standing corals and the eroded coral treatment, there was neither a difference between live and bleached coral treatments nor any temporal effects on fish assemblage structure. Our findings suggest that physical structure and complexity of habitat have stronger effects on colonisation of reef fish assemblages than changes in coral health (such as bleaching) which do not affect coral structure. This may have important implications for appropriate coral reef management.  相似文献   

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