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1.
Shipping represents a threat as a vector for the transfer of non-indigenous marine species through the discharge of ballast water and biofouling of vessels’ external structures and internal piping. While considerable attention has been given to the management of ballast water, there currently exists no international legal instrument with which to control biofouling.A number of existing legal mechanisms may be applicable in the context of coastal States’ rights under international law. However, existing mechanisms are insufficient to regulate all aspects of the biofouling problem to ensure comprehensive management of the issue. There is, therefore, a need for the development of a comprehensive international agreement to address this gap. The issue of biofouling on international vessels has now been included on the work programme of the International Maritime Organisation (IMO). As a contribution to discussions on how to address this particular issue at an international level, this article provides an analysis of the options available through the IMO to address this issue.Having defined the specific “threat scenario” with regard to hull fouling, the article will consider: (i) the international legal framework that has been established to regulate the harmful impacts of international shipping; (ii) the range of practical measures that are available to manage biofouling on vessels; and (iii) international legal options available to States to address the threat of biofouling posed by international shipping.  相似文献   

2.
Commercial vessel traffic through the Bering Strait is increasing. This region has high biological and cultural significance, to which commercial shipping poses several risks. For this environment, these risks include ship strikes of whales, noise disturbance, chronic pollution, and oil spills. Indigenous Chukchi, Iñupiaq, St. Lawrence Island Yupik, Siberian Yupik, and Yup’ik peoples may be affected by proximity between small hunting boats and large commercial vessels leading to swamping or collisions, through displacement of animals or impacts to food security from contaminants, and through loss of cultural heritage if archeological sites and other important places are disturbed by wakes or an increase in people spending time on shore. Several measures are available to govern shipping through the region, including shipping lanes, Areas to Be Avoided (ATBAs), speed restrictions, communications measures, reporting systems, emissions controls, oil spill prevention and preparedness and salvage, rescue tug capability, voyage and contingency planning, and improved charting. These measures can be implemented in various ways, unilaterally by the U.S. or Russia, bilaterally, or internationally through the International Maritime Organization (IMO). Regulatory measures can be established as voluntary measures or as mandatory measures. No single measure will address all risks, but the framework presented herein may serve as a means of identifying what needs to be done and evaluating whether the goal of safe shipping has been achieved.  相似文献   

3.
This paper analyzes International Maritime Organization (IMO) involvement in maritime cooperation regime in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore through multilateralism. It begins by introducing the maritime cooperation regime prior to 2001, which was mainly trilateral in nature through Tripartite Technical Expert Group on the Safety of Navigation (TTEG). Although TTEG managed to increase the level of safety of navigation in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore through the implementation of the Traffic Separation Scheme (TSS) in 1981 and Mandatory Ship Reporting System (STRAITREP) in 1998, such cooperation was beset by financial strain and conflict of interests. Subsequently, there was a change in the cooperation regime after 9/11 incident. This paper identifies that the change was contributed by the IMO through a methodology called multilateralism. Three important principles were adopted by IMO in implementing multilateralism in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore, namely generalized principles of conduct (respect for sovereignty and compliance with burden sharing principle under Article 43 of UNCLOS 1982), diffuse reciprocity, and indivisibility. This paper concludes that multilateralism by IMO has transformed trilateral cooperation into multilateral cooperation in the Straits of Malacca, combining state actors (littoral states and user states) and non-state actors (non-governmental organizations and international shipping industries).  相似文献   

4.
This paper is concerned with the implementation and realisation of a Worldwide Electronic Navigational Charts Database (WEND), adopted by the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) and its members in supporting marine navigation. It identifies the issue of gaps and overlaps between adjoining Electronic Navigational Charts (ENCs) and explores its consequences to the operation of Electronic Chart Display and Information Systems (ECDIS) and the fulfilment of International Maritime Organization (IMO) chart carriage requirements. As the ENCs production is directly dependent on states’ cartographic competences, this paper delves into the coastal states’ jurisdiction in accordance with international law of the sea, and in particular the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, and ΙΗΟ and IMO instruments. Through a case study on recently produced ENCs in the Mediterranean and more specifically in the Aegean Sea, this paper documents the necessity to respect states’ cartographic competences in realising the WEND concept and cautions that, otherwise, new and extended overlaps emerge, which pose a risk to the safety of navigation, and, at the same time, become means through which states may promote their geopolitical aspirations as to jurisdiction over certain marine areas.  相似文献   

5.
The objective of this paper was to investigate and illustrate how insights gained from experience managing human activities in order to protect North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) along the heavily industrialized east coast of North America might be applied in the Arctic, where bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) face some of the same risks as right whales. The reduced extent and thickness of sea ice and the resultant longer open-water season have major, complex implications for the Arctic marine ecosystem. Increased maritime ship traffic and commercial fishing in the Arctic are bound to affect bowheads and Native (indigenous) hunting communities who depend on whales for subsistence and cultural identity. Bowheads and right whales were greatly depleted by commercial whaling in the 19th and early 20th centuries. While the Western Arctic bowhead population has been recovering steadily in recent decades, North Atlantic right whales remain highly endangered because of persistent lethal and sublethal vessel strikes and frequent entanglement in commercial fishing gear. Entanglement can be transitory or persistent, with debilitation lasting for months before the animal finally succumbs. Vessel strike and fishing gear trauma has been documented in bowheads, but at a much lower rate than in right whales. Initiatives intended to mitigate the impacts of ship traffic on North Atlantic right whales have included speed limits and routing changes. Those meant to reduce the incidence and severity of entanglements include the modification of gear design and gear deployment practices. Management measures need to be considered in advance in the Arctic in order to minimize the risks to bowhead whales as shipping and industrial fishing expand in the Arctic with ice retreat.  相似文献   

6.
Conventional sectoral management and piecemeal governance are considered less and less appropriate in pursuit of sustainable development. Ecosystem based marine spatial management (EB-MSM) is an approach that recognizes the full array of interactions within an ecosystem, including human uses, rather than considering single issues, species, or ecosystem services in isolation. Marine spatial planning and ocean zoning are emerging concepts that can support EB-MSM. EB-MSM is driven by high-level goals that managers aim to achieve through the implementation of measures. High-level goals and objectives need to be translated into more operational objectives before specific targets, limits and measures can be elaborated.Monitoring, evaluation and adaptation are necessary to ensure that marine management measures are both effective and efficient. Solid monitoring frameworks are the foundation of adaptive management, as they provide the necessary information to evaluate performance and the effectiveness of management actions. Marine protected areas (MPAs) - possibly set up in networks - constitute a key component in EB-MSM policies and practises and have been applied as a cornerstone in conservation of marine biodiversity, management of fish populations, development of coastal tourism, etc. Moreover, MPA experiences have provided methods and concepts (such as zoning) to a wider EB-MSM context. The assignment of values to biophysical features of the marine environment allows the direct assessment of related management choices and may assist EB-MSM.A range of monetary valuation techniques have been proposed to reduce attributes of goods and services to a single metric. However, in the marine environment such an approach is often over simplistic, and thus less reductive techniques may be necessary. Rather than producing a single metric, the results of non-monetary assessments guide policy allowing weight to be given as necessary to potential areas of conflict and consensus.Strategies to take into account climate change effects and geohazard risks in EB-MSM have been applied or proposed worldwide. EB-MSM regimes must be alert to such risks and flexible to account for changes.  相似文献   

7.
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8.
Taiwanese fishing boats have been hijacked many times this year. Trouble at sea can usually be attributed to communication problems, inappropriate management and an unfair salary system. The majority of boats hijacked are high sea (long-line) fishing boats. Although fishery authorities ask the fishing boats to set up vessel monitoring systems (VMSs), this precaution has not been sufficient. There is a further need for improved management by the fishing boat owner and for an improved employment policy for seamen. The issue of maritime security is not new, but it remains a major concern and continues to be a threat to Taiwan and other countries. To date, there have been many cases of hijacking in the South China Sea. This paper analyzes the reasons for the hijackings and provides potential strategies to prevent future incidents.  相似文献   

9.
Cetacean research, in terms of the number of papers, and areas for which data are available, has expanded considerably in the southern African subregion in the past decade, especially in the South-West Indian Ocean. We review cetacean research within this subregion from the 1800s to the present to provide an overview of findings, investigate trends and identify knowledge gaps. Data are presented separately for large whales (those subject to commercial whaling) and smaller cetaceans, and are separated by era and ocean basin. Over 550 peer-reviewed papers and books were identified relating to research on cetaceans within the subregion. More than half (284) have been produced since 1990 and 193 relate specifically to South African waters. The most-studied species are those that are most accessible due to their coastal distributions (southern right whale Eubalaena australis: 45 papers, humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae: 31 papers, killer whales Orcinus orca: 27 papers, Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin Tursiops aduncus: 30 papers, Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin Sousa chinensis (plumbea form): 25 papers) and/or were hunted commercially (sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus: 25 papers). Identified conservation concerns vary throughout the subregion, but include bycatch and directed hunts, oil and gas development, ecotourism activities, shifts in prey resources, and noise and chemical pollution. The inshore stocks of Bryde's whales Balaenoptera edeni, the Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin and the Atlantic humpback dolphin S. teuszii were identified as the populations of highest conservation concern, although there are considerable knowledge gaps relating to deep-water species and almost no data (even on species occurrence) are available for several areas and countries.  相似文献   

10.
Scientific whaling has polarized opinion for decades, and its scientific value has been intensely debated. Here, the output of scientific whaling programs is examined by comparing it to the scientific output pertaining to whales of countries that do not practice scientific whaling. Between 1986 and 2013, whaling and non-whaling countries produced, on average, similar total numbers of publications that were directly relevant to the goals of the scientific whaling permits issued by the International Whaling Commission (IWC), and similar numbers of papers that were relevant to whale ecology and conservation but not directly related to IWC goals. Half of the scientific productivity of scientific whaling countries resulted from non-lethal data collection. One-third of publications by whaling countries were published in peer-reviewed outlets, compared to twice as many for non-whaling countries. Publications by whaling countries were cited ~4 times less often than those of non-whaling countries, with no evidence of citation discrimination against whaling countries since the citation rates of papers that did and did not use lethal sampling were similar. These academic criteria suggest that although the overall volume of science produced by scientific whaling countries is similar to that of non-whaling countries, the quality of the science is not. Arguably, academic criteria are not the best way to assess the usefulness of science for management and conservation, but demonstrating links between the science produced by scientific whaling, its integration in management plans and actions, and shifts towards sustainable exploitation or recovery of whale populations is challenging.  相似文献   

11.
Rapid advances in attaching miniaturized electronic devices to marine animals for the purpose of learning more about their behavior and interaction with the marine environment, known as bio-logging, raise important and unsettled questions under the international law of the sea. Part XIII of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) provides coastal states with the right to regulate and authorize marine scientific research in offshore areas under their sovereignty and jurisdiction. In their recent article published in this journal, James Kraska, Guillermo Ortuño, and David W. Johnston, assert that although bio-logging is a form of marine scientific research, Part XIII of UNCLOS does not apply to tagged animals that collect scientific information within a coastal state’s 200 mile exclusive economic zone, territorial sea, or internal waters. This commentary rejects Kraska et al.'s interpretation and provides evidence to support the claim that coastal state consent under Part XIII of UNCLOS may, under some circumstances, apply to bio-logging. In light of the immense scientific contributions that bio-logging research provide to global marine conservation efforts and the possible burdens that may be imposed on researchers if coastal states begin to assert their rights under UNCLOS, it is important that the international community engage in a robust and candid discussion of the issue and develop a consensus-based approach on how best to move forward.  相似文献   

12.
Private industry, the Government of Gabon and two international NGOs collaborated to conduct marine surveys off the coast of Gabon, Central Africa. Surveys addressed multiple objectives of surveillance and monitoring, the documentation of the distribution of and threats to the marine megafauna, and capacity-building among government agents and local early-career scientists. During 22 days of survey effort over a two-year period, observers documented humpback whales Megaptera novaeangliae, bottlenose dolphins Tursiops truncatus, Atlantic humpback dolphins Sousa teuszii and common dolphins Delphinus delphis. Humpback whale presence was limited to the months of July to November. Bottlenose dolphins were present year-round and photo-identification of individuals indicated a closed, resident population, with an abundance estimate of 118 (CV = 21.6%, 95% CI 78–180). Small open-decked fishing vessels with gillnets were observed concentrated around river mouths within 2 km of shore, while commercial trawlers were at least 10 km offshore; all were confirmed to be registered and legal. Observations of marine turtles, flocks of marine birds, and floating logs and other debris were sparse. This multi-stakeholder collaboration to conduct a marine survey can serve as an effective model by which funding and logistic support from private industry paired with technical expertise from NGOs and academic institutions can benefit marine and coastal conservation.  相似文献   

13.
Lennox Hinds   《Marine Policy》2001,25(6):415
Global marine policy-making and related institutional architectures have been within the domain of the United Nations system in general and its specialized agencies (FAO, IMO, UNESCO/IOC, UNEP) in particular. At the regional and country levels there are a large number of organizations and agencies that are involved in various marine issues in the programme areas of Regional Indigenous Organizations (ASEAN, CARICOM, SPF., organizations belonging to these regions). The paper reveals that the United Nations system represents a top-down policy making and institutional approach, whereas a combination of nation-state and their regional indigenous organizations represents a bottom-up approach. The paper outlines some inefficiencies of the United Nations system and provides an option for improving the effectiveness of regional indigenous organizations.  相似文献   

14.
Ecosystem Based Fisheries Management (EBFM) requires the consideration of potential impacts of a commercial fishery on all components of the ecosystem. Assessment of the impact of commercial fishing on marine mammals generally focuses on species at known risk from bycatch. For cetaceans in particular, inclusion under the Threatened, Endangered and Protected (TEP) species component of Ecological Risk Assessment for the Effects of Fishing (ERAEF) can seem redundant if a species is already known to be at risk or is not thought to interact with the fishery with consequences for its conservation. A spatially and temporally explicit Productivity Susceptibility Analysis (PSA) procedure was developed for inclusion under ERAEF to allow cetacean species to be screened for risk. The technique is demonstrated by assessing the potential risk to harbour porpoise and minke whales from a number of static gear fisheries. The results demonstrate that although a fishery might pose high risk to a species, low or moderate risk areas can exist within the range of the fishery, enabling management measures to focus on areas of greatest risk. Designed to complement and support existing methods of bycatch assessment, this approach is a repeatable and standardised assessment, the outputs of which can be used to systematically document the level of risk posed to different species in a transparent way to aid the inclusion of cetaceans in ERAEF and EBFM both now and in the future.  相似文献   

15.
A large number of the marine protected areas (MPAs) designated in Spain have been proposed by public authorities or conservation NGOs in conjunction with their own administrations and other social and economic stakeholders. The only examples to date of MPAs proposed by fishing interests – the fishermen and their organizations – are located at Cedeira and Lira, two small communities in North West Spain. These fishing interests have been involved in these two proposals from the start, including design and development, as well as internal awareness-raising. However, 5 years from the outset, both marine reserves have failed to meet the conditions and essential requirements of a successful fisheries management system. This paper evaluates how the artisanal fishing sector has been identified with the idea of sustainability; and how the role and power relations of the Galician regional administration acquired both the key institutions of co-management and their associated functions which have conditioned the consolidation process of these marine reserves.  相似文献   

16.
The development of seawater desalination plants to increase water reliability in coastal areas poses a threat to the health of near shore marine ecosystems and may affect the effectiveness of marine protected areas (MPAs) that have been established to meet international conservation targets. This paper applies a multi-criteria analysis approach to quantify stakeholder groups’ priorities for seawater desalination plants that have been proposed in communities adjacent to a National Marine Sanctuary. All groups placed the highest importance on minimizing environmental impacts on protected areas and endangered species that could be affected by water intake and brine discharge emphasizing the need for integrated land and sea conservation. Minimizing socio-economic impacts on coastal communities was much less important. Stakeholders also weighted reducing pressure on water levels in rivers, streams, and aquifers as more important than increasing water for residential consumption, which may foster coastal growth rather than replacing water taken from other sources. The study further revealed differences in the importance of multiple management objectives among stakeholder groups, which highlights the need to elicit distinct priorities of all groups to understand concerns and potential conflicts of desalination with existing marine users. The analysis of consistency ratios revealed that around half of all surveyed stakeholders had high inconsistencies in their responses, which suggests either a lack of understanding of desalination, or reflects the complexity of establishing desalination plants in coastal areas adjacent to a marine protected area.  相似文献   

17.
No-take marine protected areas (MPAs), where all fishing is prohibited, have been shown to provide benefits that include greater productivity of fish stocks due to increased densities, average sizes, and reproductive output. A critical component of this success is the effective management of MPAs to ensure that only those activities deemed permissible, are allowed to occur. As of 2008, 161 MPAs had been designated on the Pacific coast of Canada by federal, provincial or municipal authorities. The objective of this study was to discover how many of these MPAs are intended to provide full protection to habitats and species from commercial fishing and whether management measures were put in place to actualize this conservation intent. The comprehensive spatial dataset was built illustrating commercial fisheries closures and this was overlaid with MPA locations in a GIS. The majority of MPAs were designated as IUCN Strict Nature Reserve (Type Ia), Wilderness Area (Type Ib), and National Park (Type II) marine reserves, which are intended to be free from exploitation. It was found that 160 of the 161 MPAs are open to some commercial harvesting within their bounds. One small municipal MPA and portions of three other MPAs are not open to commercial harvesting. The incongruence between management intent and fisheries permitted suggests a management failure between designation of MPAs and implementation of fisheries management regulations.  相似文献   

18.
New Zealand has a large exclusive economic zone (EEZ) that contains a variety of marine habitats and commercially-important species. The commercial fishing industry operating within New Zealand's EEZ is of significant value to the economy and fisheries resources are managed through the extensive use of Individual Transferable Quotas (ITQs). One of the benefits of ITQs has been to better align some of the private incentives of quota owners with the public interest. These incentives contributed to an initiative proposed by the fishing industry to close large areas of New Zealand's EEZ to protect the seabed from trawling. These closed areas are termed benthic protection areas (BPAs) and protect the benthic biodiversity of about 1.1 million square kilometres of seabed—approximately 30% of New Zealand's EEZ. A significant proportion of New Zealand's known seamounts and active hydrothermal vents are protected by these closed areas. We describe and discuss the criteria used to select BPAs and some of the criticism of this marine protection initiative. We argue that the assignment of strong property rights in fishing resources was an important precondition to an industry initiative that has a significant public benefit. Where private and public interests are well aligned, government can adopt an enabling and facilitation role, ceding direct control of processes in order to get the results the align with the public interest.  相似文献   

19.
A common first step in conservation planning and resource management is to identify and classify habitat types, and this has led to a proliferation of habitat classification systems. Ideally, classifications should be scientifically and conceptually rigorous, with broad applicability across spatial and temporal scales. Successful systems will also be flexible and adaptable, with a framework and supporting lexicon accessible to users from a variety of disciplines and locations. A new, continental-scale classification system for coastal and marine habitats—the Coastal and Marine Ecological Classification Standard (CMECS)—is currently being developed for North America by NatureServe and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). CMECS is a nested, hierarchical framework that applies a uniform set of rules and terminology across multiple habitat scales using a combination of oceanographic (e.g. salinity, temperature), physiographic (e.g. depth, substratum), and biological (e.g. community type) criteria. Estuaries are arguably the most difficult marine environments to classify due to large spatio-temporal variability resulting in rapidly shifting benthic and water column conditions. We simultaneously collected data at eleven subtidal sites in the Columbia River Estuary (CRE) in fall 2004 to evaluate whether the estuarine component of CMECS could adequately classify habitats across several scales for representative sites within the estuary spanning a range of conditions. Using outputs from an acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP), CTD (conductivity, temperature, depth) sensor, and PONAR (benthic dredge) we concluded that the CMECS hierarchy provided a spatially explicit framework in which to integrate multiple parameters to define macro-habitats at the 100 m2 to >1000 m2 scales, or across several tiers of the CMECS system. The classification's strengths lie in its nested, hierarchical structure and in the development of a standardized, yet flexible classification lexicon. The application of the CMECS to other estuaries in North America should therefore identify similar habitat types at similar scales as we identified in the CRE. We also suggest that the CMECS could be improved by refining classification thresholds to better reflect ecological processes, by direct integration of temporal variability, and by more explicitly linking physical and biological processes with habitat patterns.  相似文献   

20.
Fisheries management around the world has experimented with regulations to promote privatization, in order to reach such multifaceted goals as ending overfishing and reducing economic inefficiencies. This review surveys a wide range of empirical experiences in different contexts around the world to help provide a fuller picture of potential and sometimes disparate consequences from privatization in general and new ways of organizing around fishing that can follow in the wake of such measures. Looking at the many different participants in the fishing industry—from crew, small-boat owners, to households and communities—as well as the diverse sociocultural contexts in which fishing takes place, enables a better understanding of who and what is impacted, how they are impacted, why and with what further consequences, such that communities come to be seen less oppositional to economy, but rather constituted by multiple scalar processes and by economic relations comprising different motivations and behaviors.  相似文献   

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